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| A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is learned |
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| The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused drive that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. |
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| Arousal Theory (optimum arousal) |
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| Human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal but to seek optimum levels of arousal. Young monkeys and children are known to explore environment in the absence of a need-based drive |
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| Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested some needs have priority over others. Physiological needs like breathing, thirst and hunger come before psychological needs like achievement, self-esteem and need for recognition |
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| Stomach contractions (pangs) send signals to the brain making us aware of our hunger. |
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| Levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by receptors (neurons) in the stomach, liver, intestines, they send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain |
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| Manipulating lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus alters the body’s “weight thermostat.”If weight is lost – food intake increases and energy expenditure decreases. If weight is gained – the opposite takes place |
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| Memory plays an important role in hunger. Due to difficulties with retention, amnesia patients eat frequently, if given food (Rozin et al., 1998). |
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| Western culture tends to over-emphasize thin body image more than other cultures. |
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| Sexual motivation is nature’s clever way of making people procreate thus enabling our species’ survival. |
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| Physiology of Sex (4 phases) |
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| Excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution |
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| It is common knowledge that men become sexually aroused when browsing through erotic material. However, women under controlled conditions experience similar heightened arousal |
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| Imagination in our brain can influence sexual arousal and desire. People with spinal cord injury, with no genital sensation, can still feel sexual desire. |
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Ignorance: Canadian teens girls have mistaken ideas about birth control methods.
Guilt-Related to Sexual Activity: Guilt reduces sexual activity but also reduces the use of contraceptives.
Minimal Communication: Many teenagers feel uncomfortable about discussing contraceptives.
Alcohol Use: Those who use alcohol prior to sex are less likely to use contraceptives.
Mass Media: Media’s portrayal of unsafe extramarital sex decreases the use of contraceptives. |
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| Sexual Activity Reduction |
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Definition
High Intelligence: Teens with higher intelligence are likely to delay sex.
Religiosity: Religious teens and adults more often reserve sex for marital commitment.
Father’s Presence: A father’s absence from home relates to higher teen sexual activity.
Learning Programs: Teens who volunteer and tutor learning programs on reducing teen pregnancy are less likely to engage in unsafe sex. |
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| Sexual orientation refers to a person’s preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same sex, other sex and/or either sex. |
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| “[Man] is a social animal,” (Aristotle). Separation from others increases our need to belong. |
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Wanting to Belong: The need to belong colors our thinking and emotions.
Social Acceptance: Belonging to others increases our self-esteem. Social segregation decreases it.
Maintaining Relationships: We resist breaking social bonds, even bad ones.
Ostracism: Social exclusion, leads to demoralization, depression and at times nasty behavior.
Fortifying Health: People who tend to have close friends are happier and healthier |
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Job: Necessary way to make money.
Career: Opportunity to advance from one position to another.
Calling: fulfilling a socially useful activity. |
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Personnel Psychology (I): Principles of selecting and evaluating workers.
Organizational Psychology (O): Studies how work environments and management styles influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity |
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if satisfied, the worker knows: What is expected of him.
Feels the need to work.
Feels fulfilled at work.
Gets opportunities to do the best.
Thinks himself to be a part of something significant.
Has opportunities to learn and develop. |
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| Task vs. Social leadership |
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Task Leadership: Involves, setting standards, organizing work, and focusing on goals.
Social Leadership: Involves mediating conflicts and building high achieving teams. |
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| Emotions are a mix of 1) physiological activation, 2) expressive behaviors, and 3) conscious experience |
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| William James and Carl Lange proposed an idea that was diametrically opposed to the common-sense view. James-Lange theory proposes that physiological activity precedes the emotional experience. |
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| Walter Cannon and Phillip Bard questioned James-Lange theory and proposed emotion-triggering stimulus and body's arousal take place simultaneously. |
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| Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed yet another theory which suggested that our physiology and our cognitions create emotions. Emotions have two factors–physical arousal and cognitive label. |
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| We know that emotions involve bodily response. Some of these response are easy to notice (butterflies in stomach when fear arises) but others are more difficult discern (neurons activated in the brain). |
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| Arousal in short spurts is adaptive. We perform better under moderate arousal, however optimal performance varies with task difficulty. |
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| Physiological Similarities |
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| Physiological responses are pretty much similar across the emotions of fear, anger, love and boredom. |
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| Zajonc and LeDoux (1984) emphasize some emotions are immediate without conscious appraisal. Lazarus, Schachter and Singer (1998) emphasize that appraisal also determines emotions. |
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| Emotions are expressed on the face, from the body and the intonation of the voice. Is this non-verbal language of emotion universal? |
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| Most of us are good at deciphering emotions thorough non-verbal communication. In a crowd of faces a single angry face will “pop out” faster than a single happy face (Fox et al. 2000). |
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| Gender/nonverbal behavior |
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Definition
| Women are much better at discerning nonverbal emotions then men. When shown sad, happy and scary film clips women expressed emotions more than men. |
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| Culture/emotional expression |
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Definition
| When culturally diverse people were shown basic facial expressions, they did pretty well at recognizing them (Ekman & Matsumoto, 1989). |
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| Darwin speculated that our ancestors communicated with facial expression in the absence of language. Nonverbal facial expression led to their survival. |
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If facial expressions are manipulated, like furrowing
brows, people feel sad while looking at sad pictures. |
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Izard (1977) has isolated 10 emotions. And most of
them are present in infancy, excluding contempt,
shame and guilt. |
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| 2 dimensions: Arousal (low vs. high), and valance (pleasant vs. unpleasant feeling) |
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Fear can torment us, rob us of sleep and
preoccupy our thinking. But fear can be adaptive – it makes us run away from danger, brings us
closer as groups, protects us from
injury and harm. |
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Definition
| Some fears are easier to learn than others. The amygdala in the brain associates emotions like fear with certain situations. |
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| Anger “carries the mind away,” (Virgil, 70-19 BCE), but “makes any coward brave,” (Cato 234-149 BCE). |
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| Venting anger through action or fantasy achieves emotional release or “catharsis.” |
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| Fear/culture gender differences |
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Boys respond to anger by moving away from that situation and girls talk to their friends or listen to music.
Anger breeds prejudice. 9/11 lead to intolerance towards immigrants and Muslims.
Expression of anger is encouraged in individualized cultures compared to cultures that promote group behavior. |
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| People who are happy perceive the world as safer, make decisions easily, rate job applicants more favorably, are more cooperative, live healthier, energized and satisfied lives. |
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| When we feel happy we are more willing to help others |
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| Many people in the West believe that if they were wealthier they would be happier. However, data suggests that they would be happy temporarily. |
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In affluent societies people with more money are happier than people who struggle for basic needs.
People in rich countries are happier than people in poor countries.
A sudden rise in financial condition makes people happy. |
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| Like adaptation to brightness, volume, and touch, people get adapted to income levels. “Satisfaction has a short half-life” |
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Deprivation is the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself with.
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| An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. |
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| Psychodynamic Perspective |
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Definition
| In his clinical practice, Freud encountered patients suffering from nervous disorders whose complaints could not be explained in terms of purely physical causes. |
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| Psychodynamic perspective |
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| Freud’s clinical experience led him to develop the first comprehensive theory of personality which included, the unconscious mind, psychosexual stages and defense mechanisms. |
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| A reservoir (unconscious mind) of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings and memories. |
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| The mind is like an iceberg. Mostly hidden and below the surface lies the unconscious mind. The preconscious, stores temporary memories. |
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Id unconsciously strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives operating on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.
Largely conscious, ego functions as the “executive” and mediates the demands of id and superego.
Superego provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations. |
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Jung believed in the collective unconscious
Adler believed a child struggles with the inferiority complex during growth and strives for superiority
Horney countered Freud’s assumption that women have weak superegos and suffer “penis envy.” |
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| Projective tests (inkblot tests) |
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| Critics argue that projective test lack both reliability (consistency of results) and validity (predicting what it is supposed to). |
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| Modern psychoanalytic research |
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Personality develops throughout life and is not fixed in childhood.
Freud underemphasize peer influence on the individual which may be as powerful as parental influence.
Gender identity may develop before 5-6 years of age. |
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| By 1960s psychologists had become discontented with Freud’s negativity and the mechanistic psychology of the behaviorists. |
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| Maslow proposed that we as individuals are motivated by a hierarchy of needs. Starting with physiological needs we try to reach the state of self-actualization fulfilling our potential. |
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| Unconditioned positive regard |
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| Carl Rogers also believed in individual's self-actualization tendencies. Unconditional Positive Regard, he said, was an attitude of acceptance of others amidst their failings. |
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| In an effort to assess personality, Rogers asked people to describe themselves as they would like to be (ideal) and as they actually are (real). If the two descriptions were close the individual had a positive self-concept. |
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| Evalulating Humanistic perspective |
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| Humanistic psychology had pervasive impact on counseling, education, child-rearing and management. Concepts in humanistic psychology are vague and subjective and lacked scientific basis. |
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An individual’s unique constellation of durable dispositions and consistent ways of behaving (traits) constitutes his personality.
Honest
Dependable
Moody
Impulsive |
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| Personality types, assessed by measures like the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, consist of a number of traits, e.g., Feeling type personality is sympathetic, appreciative and tactful. |
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| Factor analysis is a statistical approach used to describe and relate personality traits. Cattell found that large groups of traits could be reduced down to 16 core personality traits based on statistical correlations. |
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| Hans and Sybil Eysenck suggested that personality could be reduced down to two polar dimensions, extraversion-introversion and emotional stability-instability. |
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| Personality inventories are questionnaires (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors assessing several traits at once. |
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| Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests originally developed to identify emotional disorders. |
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| conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, extraversion. |
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| Person-Situation Controversy |
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Definition
Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points that traits may be enduring but the resulting behavior in different situations is different. Thus traits are not good predictors of behaviors.
Trait theorists argue that behaviors may be different from situation to situation, but average behavior remains the same, thus traits matter. |
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| Social Cognitive perspective |
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| Bandura (1986, 2001, 2005) believes that personality is the result of an interaction that takes place between a person and his social context. |
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| The three factors, behavior, cognition and environment are interlocking determinants of each other. |
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| External Locus of control |
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Definition
| refers to the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate. |
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| Internal Locus of control |
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| refers to the perception that we can control our own fate. |
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| When unable to avoid repeated aversive events an animal or human learns hopelessness. |
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| Research on how we overestimate our concern that others evaluate our appearance, performance and blunders |
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is less fragile and less dependent on external evaluation.
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