Premack Principle

AKA Relativity Theory of Reinforcement,

Grandma's Law

Premack Principle: States that making the opportunity to engage in a high-probability behavior contingent upon the occurrence of low-probability behavior will function as a reinforcer for the low-probability behavior.

• Usually "First _____, then _____"
  • Ex: First brush your teeth, then you can watch tv.

Response Deprivation Hypothesis (RDH):

• A model for predicting whether contingent access to one behavior will function as reinforcement for engaging in another behavior based on whether access to the contingent behavior represents restriction of the activity compared to baseline.
• Restricting access to the behavior creates deprivation that serves as an EO, which makes the restricted behavior a very strong form of reinforcement.

• 4 Behavior-Environments Relations that Functionally Define Imitation (F MIC):
  1. Formal Similarity: The model and tehbehavior must have formal similarity
  2. Model: The stimulus that is presented in an effort to evoke the imitative behavior. Any physical movement may function as a model for imitation. 
     • Model = Stimulus
     • Imitation = Behavior
  3. Immediacy: An imitative behavior must immediately follow the model. IMMEDIACY IS CRITICAL, or it is not considered to be imitation. 
  4. Controlled Relation: The model must be the controlling variable for the imitative behavior. The model must serve as the S^D for the imitative behavior.
     • Best evidenced when the model is novel and still evokes imitation (AKA Generalized Imitation).

1. Planned Models: Pre-arranged antecedent stimuli that help learners acquire new skills. 
   • Ex: Video model
2. Unplanned Models: Occur in everyday social interactions.
   • Ex: Watching someone pay to ride the bus, then copying that behavior.

• The goal is to teach individuals to "do what the model does"

5 Steps

1. Assess and teach any prerequisite skills for imitation training
2. Select models for training
3. Pretest
4. Sequence models for training
5. Implement imitation training

5 Steps of Imitation Training

1. Assess and teach any prerequisite skills for imitation training
2. Select models for training
3. Pretest
4. Sequence models for training
5. Implement imitation training

1. Assess and teach any prerequisite skills for imitation training

• Attending skills
• Gross & Fine motor skills required for task
• If challenging behaviors interfere with teaching, they may need to be reduced or eliminated firstly.

5 Steps of Imitation Training

1. Assess and teach any prerequisite skills for imitation training
2. Select models for training
3. Pretest
4. Sequence models for training
5. Implement imitation training

2. Select models for training

• Choose about 25 behaviors as models including fine and gross motor movements.
• Present one model at a time; present complex sequences later.

5 Steps of Imitation Training

1. Assess and teach any prerequisite skills for imitation training
2. Select models for training
3. Pretest
4. Sequence models for training
5. Implement imitation training

3. Pretest

• Pretesting assesses the individual's ability to imitate any models already.

5 Steps of Imitation Training

1. Assess and teach any prerequisite skills for imitation training
2. Select models for training
3. Pretest
4. Sequence models for training
5. Implement imitation training

4. Sequence models for training

• Using pretest results, models are arranged from easiest to most difficult.

5 Steps of Imitation Training

1. Assess and teach any prerequisite skills for imitation training
2. Select models for training
3. Pretest
4. Sequence models for training
5. Implement imitation training

5. Implement imitation training

• Pre-assessment:
  • Assesses the individual's current performance level and determines progress in learning to respond to a model.
• Training:
  • The teacher repeatedly presents the models used in pre-assessment.
• Post-assessment:
  • Assesses how well the individual performs previously and recently learned behaviors.
• Probes for Imitative Behavior:
  • Probes assess if the individual is developing an imitative repertoire. 

1. Keep training sessions active, short (10-15minutes couple times a day).
2. Reinforce both prompted and imitative responses.
3. Pair verbal praise and attention with tangible reinforcers. 
4. If progress breaks down, back up and move ahead slowly.
5. Record data.
6. Fade out prompts.

• A process involving systematically and differentially reinforcing successive approximations to a terminal behavior.
• Teaches novel behaviors

• Differential Reinforcement: Reinforcing those responses within a response class that meet a specific criterion along some dimension, and placing all other responses in the class on extinction.

• Successive Approximations: The sequence of new response classes that emerge during the shaping process as a result of differential reinforcement. Each successive approximation is closer in form to the terminal behavior than the response class it replaces.

• A behavior change proceeded by differential reinforcement.
  • Reinforced members of the current response class occur with greater frequency and unreinforced members occur less frequently. 

2 Types of Shaping Methods

1. Across Topographies
2. Within Topographies

1. Shaping ACROSS Response Topographies:
   • Topography of behavior changes during shaping
   • Behaviors are still members of the same response class.
     • Ex: SLP teaching novel vocalizations to individual who does not possess and vocal abilities.
2. Shaping WITHIN Response Topographies:
   • Topography of behavior remains constant.
   • Another measurable dimension of behavior changes (e.g., duration, intensity).
     • Ex: Hammering a nail changes from tapping child's toy to sinking carpentry nails.

Compare & Contrast

Shaping vs. Fading

Both change behavior gradually

• Shaping by changing response requirements.
• Fading by changing antecedent stimuli.

1. Assess terminal behavior and available resources
2. Select terminal behavior
3. Determine criterion for success
   • Specify accuracy, speed, duration, magnitude, of terminal behavior
4. Analyze the response class
   • Identify the approximations that might be emitted during shaping
5. Identify the first behavior to reinforce
   • Some degree of the behavior should already be occurring in the individual's repertoire.
   • The behavior chosen should be a member of the targeted response class.
6. Eliminate extraneous stimuli
7. Proceed in gradual stages
8. Limit the number of approximations at each level
   • If too many trials occur at a certain approximation, the behavior may become too firmly established
9. Continue reinforcement when the terminal behavior is achieved
   • Continue to provide reinforcement after the terminal behavior has occurred.
     • If not, you may lose terminal behavior.

• A specific sequence of discrete responses, each associated with a particular stimulus condition, where each response and the associated stimulus condition serve as an individual component of the chain. 
• When the components are linked together they produce a terminal outcome.
• Each response in a chain produces a stimulus change that simultaneously serves two purposes:
  1. A Conditioned reinforcer for the response that produced it.
  2. An S^D for the next response in the chain.
• An exception to the dual function is the first and last response; these function as either an S^D OR a conditioned reinforcer.

• The (individual steps of, or entire) chain must be performed correctly and within a specified amount of time.
• Accuracy and rate are essential dimensions to limited holds.

• Behavior chain: A specified sequence of behaviors that lead to reinforcement.
• Chaining: Various methods for linking specific sequences of stimuli ad responses to form new responses. 

• Required to implement chaining procedure.
• Breaking complex skills into smaller, teachable units, the product of which is a series of sequential ordered steps. 
• Individualized to the person according to age, skill level, and prior experience. 

2 Methods for Assessing Baseline

1. Single Opportunity
2. Multiple Opportunity

2 Methods for assessing Baseline

1. Single Opportunity
2. Multiple Opportunity

1. Single Opportunity: Assesses individual's ability to perform each behavior in the task analysis in correct sequence. 

• Data is scored correct / incorrect for each behavior emitted.
• Once the individual scores a minus, all subsequent steps are scored a minus, and the assessment is immediately terminated.
• More conservative of the 2 methods because assessment stops at the first incorrect step.
• Provides less information to the teacher.
• Quicker to conduct.
• Less chance of learning occurring during assessment.

2 Methods for assessing Baseline

1. Single Opportunity
2. Multiple Opportunity

2. Multiple Opportunity: Evaluates individual's baseline of mastery across all behaviors in the task analysis. If a step is performed incorrectly, out of sequence, or the time limit for the step is exceeded, the behavior analyst completes that step for the individual and the prompts the learner to do the next step.

• Each step performed correctly is scored plus, even if previous steps were performed incorrectly. 
• Takes more time to complete.
• Provides more information about which steps the individual has mastered or needs additional training. 
• Increases likelihood of learning taking place during the assessment. 

4 Behavior Chaining Methods

1. Forward Chaining
2. Total-Task Chaining
3. Backward Chaining
4. Backward Chaining with Leap Ahead

4 Behavior Chaining Methods

1. Forward Chaining
2. Total-Task Chaining
3. Backward Chaining
4. Backward Chaining with Leap Ahead

1. Forward Chaining: Breaking a skill up into teachable components and then teaching the components one step at a time starting with the first step. Student performs / or is taught 1st step teacher performs remaining steps. 

• Once the first step has been mastered, move on to teaching the next step, etc.
• Once each step has been mastered, learner will be required to perform that/those steps independently.
• Advantages:
  • Can be used to link smaller chains to larger chains. 
  • Relatively easy to execute.

4 Behavior Chaining Methods

1. Forward Chaining
2. Total-Task Chaining
3. Backward Chaining
4. Backward Chaining with Leap Ahead

2. Total-Task Chaining: (AKA Concurrent Training) A procedure in which every step  in the task analysis is taught to the individual during every session.

• Each step performed incorrectly is trained until individual is able to perform all responses in the correct order.

4 Behavior Chaining Methods

1. Forward Chaining
2. Total-Task Chaining
3. Backward Chaining
4. Backward Chaining with Leap Ahead

3. Backward Chaining: Breaking a skill up into teachable components and then teaching the components one step at a time starting with the last step. Teacher performs all but last step, student performs final step.  

• Once the last step has been mastered, move on to teaching the next step, etc.
• Once each step has been mastered, learner will be required to perform that/those steps independently before accessing reinforcement.
• The first behavior the individual performs independently produces the terminal reinforcement.
• Advantages: 
  • On each trial, the individual comes into contact with the terminal reinforcer for the chain.
• Disadvantages: 
  • Potential for passive participation of the individual in earlier steps.
  • Can slow down learning process, especially if the individual has mastered some of the steps in the chain.

4 Behavior Chaining Methods

1. Forward Chaining
2. Total-Task Chaining
3. Backward Chaining
4. Backward Chaining with Leap Ahead

4. Backward Chaining with Leap Ahead: Same protocol as BACKWARD CHAIN, but not every step in the task analysis is trained.

• Purpose: to decrease training time necessary to learn chain.
• Some steps are only probed.
• If the step is already in the individual's behavior repertoire, it will not be trained → LEAP AHEAD to the next step.

• Reinforcing only those responses within a response class that meet a specific criterion along some dimensions and placing all other responses in the class on extinction

• 2 Parts of differential Reinforcement:
• 1. Reinforcement contingent on:
     • the occurrence of a behavior other than the challenging behavior.
     • Challenging behavior occurring at a reduced rate. 
  2. Withholding Reinforcement for the challenging behavior as much as possible.

6 Types of Differential Reinforcement

HI LOAD

1. High Rates of Responding
2. Incompatible Behavior
3. Low Rates of Responding
4. Other Behavior
5. Alternative Behavior
6. Diminishing Rates of Responding

6 Types of Differential Reinforcement 

1. High Rates of Responding
2. Incompatible Behavior
3. Low Rates of Responding
4. Other Behavior
5. Alternative Behavior
6. Diminishing Rates of Responding

1. Differential Reinforcement of High Rates of Responding (DRH): Schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement is provided at the end of a predetermined interval, contingent upon the number of responses emitted during the interval being greater than a gradually increasing criterion.

• DRH helps in increase behavior that the individual displays too infrequently. 

2 DRH Sub-Types:

1. Full-session DRH: Reinforcement is delivered at the end of a session IF during the entire session the target behavior occurred at a rate ≥ the predetermined criterion.
2. Interval DRH: Reinforcement is delivered at the end of each interval during which the target behavior occurred at a rate ≥ the predetermined criterion.
   • Total amount of time must be divided into equal intervals of time.
   • If the challenging behavior falls short of the predetermined criterion, the interval is reset and the opportunity for reinforcement is postponed.
   • More complicated than Full-Session; requires continuous monitoring, careful timing, and frequent reinforcement.

6 Types of Differential Reinforcement 

1. High Rates of Responding
2. Incompatible Behavior
3. Low Rates of Responding
4. Other Behavior
5. Alternative Behavior
6. Diminishing Rates of Responding

2. Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behaviors (DRI): A procedure for decreasing problem behavior in which reinforcement is delivered for behavior that is topographically incompatible with the behavior targeted for decrease, and withheld following instances of the problem behavior.

• The behavior being differentially reinforced, and the behavior on extinction are mutually exclusive response classes.
• DRI is a sub-type of DRA

6 Types of Differential Reinforcement 

1. High Rates of Responding
2. Incompatible Behavior
3. Low Rates of Responding
4. Other Behavior
5. Alternative Behavior
6. Diminishing Rates of Responding

3. Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding (DRL): A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement follows each instance of the target behavior that is separated from the previous response by a minimum interresponse time, or contingent on the number of responses within a period of time not exceeding a predetermined criterion.

• Used to decrease behaviors that occur too frequently but should remain in repertoire.
• The longer the IRT → lower the rate of responding, The shorter the IRT → higher the rate of responding.
• By increasing the IRT you are lowering the rate of responding.

6 Types of Differential Reinforcement 

1. High Rates of Responding
2. Incompatible Behavior
3. Low Rates of Responding
4. Other Behavior
5. Alternative Behavior
6. Diminishing Rates of Responding

4. Differential Reinforcement of Other Behaviors (DRO): A procedure for decreasing problem behavior in which reinforcement is contingent upon the absence of the problem behavior during specific times.

• DRO Sub-Types:
  1. Interval
     1. FI-DRO
     2. VI-DRO
  2. Momentary 
     1. FM-DRO
     2. VM-DRO

DRO Sub-Types:

1. Interval
   1. FI-DRO
   2. VI-DRO
2. Momentary 
   1. FM-DRO
   2. VM-DRO

1.0 Interval DRO: A sub-type of DRO in which a reinforcer is provided following an interval of time throughout which the challenging behavior did not occur.

• If the challenging behavior does occur, the interval is RESET.
• Very effective in DECREASING challenging behaviors.
• More popular than momentary DROs.

DRO Sub-Types:

1. Interval
   1. FI-DRO
   2. VI-DRO
2. Momentary 
   1. FM-DRO
   2. VM-DRO

1.1 Fixed Interval DRO (FI-DRO): An interval of time is established and if the challenging behavior does not occur during that interval, the individual earns reinforcement at the end of that interval.

• Fixed = Constant or not changeable period of time.
• As behavior improves, intervals should increase gradually. 

Ex: On FI-DRO 11-minutes Ray is reinforced when he does not scream for a fixed-interval of 11 minutes. If Ray screams at any time during the 11 minutes, his interval is reset.

DRO Sub-Types:

1. Interval
   1. FI-DRO
   2. VI-DRO
2. Momentary 
   1. FM-DRO
   2. VM-DRO

1.2 Variable Interval DRO (VI-DRO): A variable interval of time is established and if the challenging behavior does not occur during that interval, the individual earns reinforcement at the end of the interval.

• Variable = Changeable period of time (based on avg. or mean)

Ex: On a VI-DRO 11-minutes Ray is reinforced when he does not scream for a variable interval of 11 minutes. The 11 minutes is an average taken from the baseline data of Ray's screaming behavior that indicated he screamed (on average) every 11 minutes. If Ray screams any time during the 11 minute interval his interval is reset.

DRO Sub-Types:

1. Interval
   1. FI-DRO
   2. VI-DRO
2. Momentary 
   1. FM-DRO
   2. VM-DRO

2.0 Momentary DRO: A sub-type of DRO in which a reinforcer is provided following an interval of time ONLY if the challenging behavior is not occurring at the end of that interval.

• Momentary DROs are effective at maintaining the decrease of challenging behaviors.

DRO Sub-Types:

1. Interval
   1. FI-DRO
   2. VI-DRO
2. Momentary 
   1. FM-DRO
   2. VM-DRO

2.1 Fixed-Momentary DRO (FM-DRO): An interval of time is established and if the challenging behavior does not occur AT THE END OF that interval, the individual earns reinforcement at the end of that interval.

• Fixed = Constant or not changeable period of time.
• Momentary = At the conclusion of the interval.
• As behavior improves, intervals should increase gradually. 

Ex: On an FM-DRO 11-minute schedule Ray is reinforced when, at the end of a fixed interval of 11 minutes, he is not screaming. If he screams at any point during the 11 minutes, he can still earn reinforcement if he is not screaming at the end of the interval. 

DRO Sub-Types:

1. Interval
   1. FI-DRO
   2. VI-DRO
2. Momentary 
   1. FM-DRO
   2. VM-DRO

2.2 Variable-Momentary DRO (VM-DRO): A variable  interval of time is established and if the challenging behavior does not occur AT THE END OF that interval, the individual earns reinforcement at the end of that interval.

• Variable = Changeable period of time (based on avg. or mean).
• Momentary = At the conclusion of the interval.

Ex: On a VM-DRO 11. minute schedule Ray is reinforced when he does not scream AT THE END OF the variable interval of 11 minutes. If he screams any time during the interval, he can still earn reinforcement, as long as he is not screaming at the end of the interval. 

• Advantages:
  • Easier to implement because behavior does not require continuous monitoring.
  • Research indicates that individuals meet with reinforcement more frequently with VM-DRO as compared to an FI-DRO.

6 Types of Differential Reinforcement 

1. High Rates of Responding
2. Incompatible Behavior
3. Low Rates of Responding
4. Other Behavior
5. Alternative Behavior
6. Diminishing Rates of Responding

5. Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior (DRA): A procedure for decreasing problem behavior in which reinforcement is delivered contingent upon emission of functionally equivalent alternative behavior and withheld following instances of the problem behavior.

• Alternative behavior & challenging behavior ∅ incompatible.
• Alternative behavior and challenging behavior are part of same response class. 
  • →Alternative behavior will result in the same consequence as challenging behavior → will compete successfully because this makes challenging behavior ineffective.

6 Types of Differential Reinforcement 

1. High Rates of Responding
2. Incompatible Behavior
3. Low Rates of Responding
4. Other Behavior
5. Alternative Behavior
6. Diminishing Rates of Responding

6. Differential reinforcement of Diminishing Rates of Responding (DRD): Schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement is provided at the end of a predetermined interval, contingent on the number of responses emitted during the interval being fewer than a gradually decreasing criterion. 

• DRD helps to decrease behaviors  that the individual displays too frequently, but NOT ELIMINATE IT ENTIRELY.
• DRD is described in RATE / FREQUENCY. 

DRD Sub-Types:

1. Full-Session DRD
2. Interval DRD 

1. Full-Session DRD: Reinforcement is delivered at the end of a session IF during the entire session, the target behavior occurred at a number ≤ the predetermined criterion.

DRD Sub-Types:

1. Full-Session DRD
2. Interval DRD

2. Interval DRD: Reinforcement is delivered at the end of each interval during which the target behavior occurred at a rate ≤ the predetermined criterion.

• The total amount of time in a full session must be divided into equal intervals of time. 
• If the challenging behavior exceeds the predetermined criterion during the interval, the interval is reset and the opportunity for reinforcement is postponed.
• More complicated than Full-Session DRD because it requires continuous monitoring, careful timing, and request reinforcement.

Differential Negative Reinforcement of

Incompatible / Alternative Behavior

• Terms that are used to refer to differential reinforcement procedures that specifically involve escape as the reinforcer. 

Ex: Teaching someone to ask for 5-minute break instead of running away when s/he desires to escape demand.

1. Select incompatible / alternative behavior
2. Select reinforcers that are powerful and can be delivered consistently
3. Reinforce incompatible / alternative behavior immediately and consistently
4. Withhold reinforcement for the challenging behavior
5. Combine DRI/DRA with other procedures

1. Select reinforcers that are powerful and can be delivered consistently
2. Recognize the limitations of the DRO
3. Set initial DRO intervals the assure frequent reinforcement
4. Do not inadvertently reinforce other undesirable behavior
5. Gradually increase DRO intervals
6. Extend DRO to other settings and times of day
7. Combine DRO with other procedures

1. Recognize the limitations of DRH/DRD/DRL
2. Choose the most appropriate DRH/DRD/DRL procedure
3. Use baseline data to guide the selection of the initial response or IRT limits
4. Gradually thin the DRH/DRD/DRL schedule
5. Provide feedback to learner

• Any communication other thank vocal verbal speech.
  • Signing, touching, PECS
• Must assess individual's current repertoire of verbal skills, along with those of their audience. 
• Research does not favor one augmentative communication device over another.

Two Classifications of the Functions of Antecedent Stimuli:

• Contingency Dependent (AKA Antecedent Control):
  • The antecedent is dependent on the consequences of behavior for developing evocative and ablative effects.
  • Stimulus control (S^Ds) = Contingency dependent.
  • Strategies that alter the stimulus control.
  • Changes in response can be achieved by using within or extra stimulus prompts.

Ex: In the presence of [2+2=?] a student responds "4", not because of the stimulus [ ], but because of a past reinforcement history of saying "4".

• Contingency Independent (AKA Antecedent Intervention):
  • The antecedent is NOT dependent on the consequences of behavior for developing evocative and ablative effects.
  • The antecedent itself affects behavior-consequence relations.
  • MOs = contingency independent.
  • Strategies that alter the MOs by influencing which classes of consequences function effectively as reinforcers.
  • Antecedent interventions create AOs because they decrease the effectiveness of reinforcers that maintain challenging behavior. 

Ex: Sleep deprivation can influence the occurrence of problem behavior in the absence of a history of pairing sleep deprivation with reinforcement or punishment of those behaviors. 

3 Antecedent Interventions

1. Noncontingent Reinforcement
2. High-Probability Request Sequence
3. Functional Communication Training

3 Antecedent Interventions

1. Noncontingent Reinforcement
2. High-Probability Request Sequence
3. Functional Communication Training

• A response-independent (i.e., time-based) schedule of reinforcement.
  • "response independent" means client's responses are NOT dependent / contingent on anything → just give the client Sr⁺ based on time, not contingent on their behavior.
• An antecedent intervention that involves:
  1. Providing stimuli with known reinforcing properties...
  2. on a fixed-time or variable-time schedule...
  3. Independent of the individual's behavior
• FBAs help to identify maintaining reinforcers
• NCR uses three distinct procedures that identify and deliver stimuli with known reinforcing properties:
  1. Positive Reinforcement
  2. Negative Reinforcement
  3. Automatic Reinforcement
• NCR should be used in a treatment package.

3 Antecedent Interventions

1. Noncontingent Reinforcement
2. High-Probability Request Sequence
3. Functional Communication Training

• Advantages:
  • Easier to implement → do not need to monitor subject at all times
  • Makes positive learning environment
  • Treatment packages that include NCR and EXT may reduce extinction-induced response bursts.
  • Pairings or appropriate behaviors and NCR could strengthen and maintain desirable behaviors.
• Disadvantages:
  • Free access to NCR stimuli may reduce motivation to engage in adaptive behavior
  • Pairings of NCR and challenging behaviors could strengthen challenging behaviors
  • NCR escape procedure can disrupt the instructional process. 
  • Does NOT teach new behavior

3 Antecedent Interventions

1. Noncontingent Reinforcement
2. High-Probability Request Sequence
3. Functional Communication Training

• A method designed to increase the probability that a LOW PROBABILITY behavior will occur by presenting stimuli known to promote a HIGH PROBABILITY of responding PRIOR to an activity less likely to be performed.

• The procedure requires 2 main steps:
  1. High-probability requests (i.e., requests to which the individual has a history of complying) are presented).
  2. After correctly responding to the high-probability requests, ONE low probability request (i.e., requests to which the individual does not have a history of complying) is presented
• To use high-probability request sequence effectively:
  • All behaviors selected have to already be in the individual's repertoire. Cannot use this strategy to teach novel responses during acquisition.
  • Requests selected must be presented very rapidly.

3 Antecedent Interventions

1. Noncontingent Reinforcement
2. High-Probability Request Sequence
3. Functional Communication Training

• A strategy that teaches individuals ways to functionally (i.e., appropriately) communicate to compete with challenging behaviors evoked by EOs. 

• Developed by Carr and Durand (1985).
• Utilizes an individual's EOs strategically and capitalizes on them by teaching replacement behaviors for their EOs. 
• A way to execute MAND TRAINING
• FCT is application of DRA; it developed an alternative communication response as an antecedent to diminish challenging behavior. 
• FCT capitalizes on individual's EOs in the moment unlike  NCR & HPRS.
• FCT should always be utilized as part of a treatment package.

Steps of Implementing FCT

1. Start With Dense Schedule of Reinforcement
2. Reduce Prompts
3. Thin Schedule

Steps of Implementing FCT

1. Start With Dense Schedule of Reinforcement
2. Reduce Prompts
3. Thin Schedule

• INITIALLY FCT target response must be reinforced on CRF schedule (continuous)

Steps of Implementing FCT

1. Start With Dense Schedule of Reinforcement
2. Reduce Prompts
3. Thin Schedule

• When the FCT target response is taught initially, verbal prompts are used
• After the FCT target response is in the individual's repertoire, reduce or eliminate verbal prompts.

Steps of Implementing FCT

1. Start With Dense Schedule of Reinforcement
2. Reduce Prompts
3. Thin Schedule

• After the FCT target response is mastered, thin the schedule of reinforcement.
• Guidelines for thinning the schedule of reinforcement are NOT the same as NCR.
• Alternative communication  responses must remain sensitive to the evocative function of the EO to compete with challenging behavior.
• Recovery of challenging behavior could occur.

• A procedure in which a CONTRACT is developed collaboratively that stipulates a certain contingency for an individual between a behavior and a reinforcer.
• The contract itself is a permanent product, as it is a document that can be written.
• Contracts are used in treatment packages.
• Contracts are effective because they involve:
  1. (delayed) reinforcement.
  2. rule-governance
  3. response prompting → contract serves as response prompt for target behavior(s)

3 Components of Contingency Contracts

BRD

1. Behavior
2. Reward
3. Data

3 Components of Contingency Contracts

1. Behavior
2. Reward
3. Data

BEHAVIOR: Description of the desired BEHAVIOR

• Who will perform the behavior / receive the reward
• What is the behavior to be performed
• When will the behavior be completed
• What is the quality expectation of the behavior
• Is the behavior already in the individual's repertoire
• Does the behavior result in permanent product

3 Components of Contingency Contracts

1. Behavior
2. Reward
3. Data

REWARD: Description of the REWARD

• Who will assess that the behavior has been completed to specific criteria
• What is the reward
• When will the reward be delivered
• How much of the reward will the individual receive

3 Components of Contingency Contracts

1. Behavior
2. Reward
3. Data

DATA: Behavior Data

• Where is data on the behavior recorded
• When will the data be reviewed

• A behavior change system wherein participants earn tokens (generalized conditioned reinforcers) contingent upon performance of specific behaviors, and exchange tokens for their choice of back-up reinforcers. 

• A contingency package that includes three parts:
  1. Specified list of responses to reinforce
  2. Tokens for exhibiting the specified responses
  3. back-up reinforcers that can be purchased with the token(s)

• Effectiveness of tokens as reinforcers depends upon the power of the back-up reinforcers.
• Response cost is (sometimes) used with token economies.
  • Response cost is a punishment procedure
• Tokens are generalized conditioned reinforcers for target responses.
• Often used as a transition between primary and naturally occurring secondary reinforcers

6 Steps to Developing a Token Economy

1. Select Tokens
2. Identify Target Behaviors & Rules
3. Choose Back-up Reinforcers
4. Set Up Exchange Ratio
5. Develop Procedures For When Token Requirements are NOT Met
6. Field-Test the Token System

1. Select Tokens
2. Identify Target Behaviors & Rules
3. Choose Back-up Reinforcers
4. Set Up Exchange Ratio
5. Develop Procedures For When Token Requirements are NOT Met
6. Field-Test the Token System

6 Steps to Developing a Token Economy

1. Select Tokens
2. Identify Target Behaviors & Rules
3. Choose Back-up Reinforcers
4. Set Up Exchange Ratio
5. Develop Procedures For When Token Requirements are NOT Met
6. Field-Test the Token System

Select Tokens:

• Tangible symbols that are given immediately after a response and exchanged later for known reinforcers
• Coupons, poker chips, points
• Tokens should be:
  • safe
  • not able to be bootlegged
  • durable
  • easily accessible
  • inexpensive
• Tokens themselves should not be desirable objects

6 Steps to Developing a Token Economy

1. Select Tokens
2. Identify Target Behaviors & Rules
3. Choose Back-up Reinforcers
4. Set Up Exchange Ratio
5. Develop Procedures For When Token Requirements are NOT Met
6. Field-Test the Token System

Identify Target Behaviors & Rules:

• Select measurable / observable behaviors
• Specific criteria for task completion
• Start with smaller number of behaviors
• Ensure individual processes prerequisite skills
• Decide to include or exclude response cost
  • MOST include response cost
  • Specific behaviors resulting in response cost
  • The cost should correspond to the severity of the behavior
  • Avoid problem of bankruptcy

6 Steps to Developing a Token Economy

1. Select Tokens
2. Identify Target Behaviors & Rules
3. Choose Back-up Reinforcers
4. Set Up Exchange Ratio
5. Develop Procedures For When Token Requirements are NOT Met
6. Field-Test the Token System

Choose Back-up reinforcers

• Initially attempt to utilize naturally occurring activities
• If naturally occurring reinforcers are not effective, utilize artificial reinforcers
• Follow ethical and legal rules

6 Steps to Developing a Token Economy

1. Select Tokens
2. Identify Target Behaviors & Rules
3. Choose Back-up Reinforcers
4. Set Up Exchange Ratio
5. Develop Procedures For When Token Requirements are NOT Met
6. Field-Test the Token System

Set Up Exchange Ratio

• Keep initial ratios low
• After time increase cost of back-up reinforcers, devalue tokens, and increase number of back-up items.

6 Steps to Developing a Token Economy

1. Select Tokens
2. Identify Target Behaviors & Rules
3. Choose Back-up Reinforcers
4. Set Up Exchange Ratio
5. Develop Procedures For When Token Requirements are NOT Met
6. Field-Test the Token System

Develop Procedures For When Token Requirements are NOT Met

• Deliver consequences in a matter-of-fact way

6 Steps to Developing a Token Economy

1. Select Tokens
2. Identify Target Behaviors & Rules
3. Choose Back-up Reinforcers
4. Set Up Exchange Ratio
5. Develop Procedures For When Token Requirements are NOT Met
6. Field-Test the Token System

Field-Test the Token System

• Token delivery is tallied as if tokens were being earned BEFORE actual implementation of the system.
• After collecting data, assess if any changes need to be made.

Group Contingencies

D.I.I.

• A common sequence is contingent on teh behavior of:
  • One member of the group, OR
  • Part of the group, OR
  • All individuals in the group.
• Can be more practical to implement than individual contingencies.
• Takes advantage of influence of peers.

• 3 Types:
  • Dependent
  • Independent
  • Interdependent

Dependent Group Contingency

AKA Hero Procedure

• An arrangement in which reinforcement for the whole group is dependent on the performances of an individual or small group
• The goal is to make a hero out of someone by ensuring s/he will meet the criterion for reinforcement for the entire group.

Ex: Teacher says 'If Randy finishes his math worksheet, no one has homework.'

• An arrangement in which a contingency is presented to all members of a group, but reinforcement is delivered only to those members of the group which meet the criterion outlined in the contingency.

Ex: Teacher says 'Anyone who finishes math worksheet will not have homework.'

• An arrangement in which all members of a group must meet the criterion of the contingency before any member earns reinforcement. 
• If only one person fails to meet contingency, entire group is denied access to reinforcement.

Ex: Teacher says 'If everyone finishes their math worksheet, no one has homework tonight.'

• Employment of behavior analytic interventions to the behavior of yourself.

• A procedure in which a person observes their own behavior systematically and records occurrences / non-occurrences of behavior.
• Originally used for assessment
• Part of intervention package including reinforcement

• A comparison of an individual's performance by him/herself with a predetermined criterion.

• Provide materials that make self-monitoring easy
• Provide supplementary prompts
• Self-Monitor the most important dimension of the behavior
• Self-Monitor early and often
• Reinforce accurate self-monitoring

• Providing consequences for self, after reviewing self-monitoring data.
• Choose consequences that are small and easy to attain.
• Eliminate bootleg reinforcement

Self-Management Tactics

1. Self Instruction
2. Habit Reversal
3. Self-Directed Systematic Desensitization 
4. Massed Practice

Self-Management Tactics

1. Self Instruction
2. Habit Reversal
3. Self-Directed Systematic Desensitization 
4. Massed Practice

1. Self Instruction: Self-generated verbal responses that function as response prompts for desired behavior.

• Often used to guide. person through a behavior chain

Self-Management Tactics

1. Self Instruction
2. Habit Reversal
3. Self-Directed Systematic Desensitization 
4. Massed Practice

2. Habit Reversal: A multi-component treatment package for reducing unwanted habits that involves identifying events that precede a target behavior and engaging in competing responses.

• Skinner called this "doing something else"

Self-Management Tactics

1. Self Instruction
2. Habit Reversal
3. Self-Directed Systematic Desensitization 
4. Massed Practice

3. Self-Directed Systematic Desensitization: Substituting one behavior for unwanted behavior (e.g., muscle relaxation → test anxiety)

• Develop a hierarchy of situations from least-to-most fearful
• Gradually expose self to each situation on the hierarchy, first imagining each situation then moving towards actual real life situation. 

Self-Management Tactics

1. Self Instruction
2. Habit Reversal
3. Self-Directed Systematic Desensitization 
4. Massed Practice

4. Massed Practice: Performing an undesired behavior repeatedly.

• This strategy may decrease behavior
• Procedure can be dangerous

• Supplementary ANTECEDENT stimuli that are introduced to evoke a desired response when the S^D is evident.
• A functional but irrelevant S^D such as a hint or reminder, designed to set the occasion for a desired response.

2 Types of Prompts

1. Response Prompts
2. Stimulus Prompts

2 Types of Prompts

1. Response Prompts
2. Stimulus Prompts

1. Response Prompts: Act on the response itself, NOT on the antecedent stimuli.

• 3 Forms of Response Prompts:
  1. Verbal (vocal & non-vocal)
  2. Modeling
  3. Physical

2 Types of Prompts

1. Response Prompts
2. Stimulus Prompts

2. Stimulus Prompts: Act on the antecedent stimuli, NOT on the response.

• Call attention to the stimulus that is in need of help.

• Forms of stimulus Prompts:
  • Movement
  • Position- Item is placed closer to the individual [or correct response] than other items
  • Redundancy- The dimensions of the stimulus are paired with the correct response.

4 Ways to Remove Response Prompts

1. Most-to-Least
2. Least-to-Most
3. Graduated Guidance
4. Delayed Prompting

4 Ways to Remove Response Prompts

1. Most-to-Least
2. Least-to-Most
3. Graduated Guidance
4. Delayed Prompting

1. Most-to-Least: Beginning with a prompt known to reliably evoke the behavior and gradually proceeding to less intrusive prompts.

Ex: A behavior analyst typically provides full physical prompts, then modeling, and verbal prompts until none are required, and natural stimulus evokes the correct response.

4 Ways to Remove Response Prompts

1. Most-to-Least
2. Least-to-Most
3. Graduated Guidance
4. Delayed Prompting

2. Least-to-Most: Prompting begins with minimal cues that systematically and gradually increase in prompt hierarchy level until resulting in the correct response. 

• Proceed to increasingly intrusive prompts ONLY if the individual needs them.
• Most effective procedure when you want to minimize artificial prompts.

Ex: Teacher initially provides verbal prompts, then modeling then physical prompts as needed by teh individual.

4 Ways to Remove Response Prompts

1. Most-to-Least
2. Least-to-Most
3. Graduated Guidance
4. Delayed Prompting

3. Graduated Guidance: Utilizing the minimal amount of physical prompting necessary to occasion the correct response and then gradually reducing physical prompts.

Ex: Teaching an individual how to tie shoes; therapist starts by providing full physical prompts, then gradually and systematically moving their hands away from the individual's hands towards wrists, forearm, elbow, shoulders, until prompting is no longer necessary. 

4 Ways to Remove Response Prompts

1. Most-to-Least
2. Least-to-Most
3. Graduated Guidance
4. Delayed Prompting

4. Delayed Prompting: Inserting time delays between the S^D and the prompt in order to systematically eliminate prompts. 

• Upon successful initial implementation of the delayed prompting strategy, the prompt is no longer needed for the person, as the person should be responding PRIOR to the prompt.

• 2 forms of Delayed Prompting:
  1. Fixed Delayed Prompting: The time between the S^D and the prompt its constant.
     • Ex: Fixed Time 5 seconds. Each time the S^D is presented the prompt follows 5 seconds later.
  2. Progressive Delayed Prompting: The time between the S^D and the prompt gradually increases.
     • Ex: Give the S^D and start with an initial prompt. Gradually increase the delay from S^D to model prompt in X-second increments starting with 0 moving towards 60 seconds until individual meets the criteria for responding.

2 Ways to Remove Stimulus Prompts

1. Fading
2. Shape

2 Ways to Remove Stimulus Prompts

1. Fading
2. Shape

1. Fading (AKA Stimulus Fading): The systematic and gradual removal of intrusive prompts until the control transfers to the natural stimulus (S^D).

• Fading is a maximal-to minimal prompting procedure used to foster independence from prompts, and/or shift control to stimuli designated to evoke the response.

Ex: Teaching to read the word purple, first type the word in purple color, then fade the color.

Purple → Purple → Purple

2 Ways to Remove Stimulus Prompts

1. Fading
2. Shape

2. SHAPE: Stimulus Shape Transformations: The systematic and gradual transformation of teh physical shape of the stimulus.

• The shape of the initial stimulus is gradually altered to become the natural S^D over time. 

Ex: Teaching the word Heart

♥  →  ___  →  ___  →  ___  Heart

• Instructional methods specifically designed to prevent or substantially minimize any learner errors that are used to teach particular discriminations. 
• Most-to-least prompting and fading methods are specifically suitable for teaching new skills errorlessly.
• We remove prompts so gradually, that the likelihood of any failure goes away.

Advantages:

1. Effective for young children, individuals with developmental disabilities, individuals with brain injuries etc.
2. Research shows that once a person makes an arrow they are more likely to make more errors.

Disadvantages:

1. Costly in terms of time, money, effort
2. Important to teach the client to persist in teh face of inevitable errors. 

5 ABA Instructional Methodologies

1. Discrete Trial Training
2. Incidental Teaching
3. Direct Instruction
4. Precision Teaching
5. Personalized System of Instruction

5 ABA Instructional Methodologies

1. Discrete Trial Training
2. Incidental Teaching
3. Direct Instruction
4. Precision Teaching
5. Personalized System of Instruction

1. Discrete Trial Instruction: A single cycle of behaviorally-based and systematic instructional routine.

• 5 Components of DTT:
  1. S^D: Present the S^D (i.e., a cue to respond)
  2. Prompt: Provide a temporary prompt if necessary
  3. Response: Individual displays target response
  4. Reinforcement: Deliver reinforcement [contingent upon correct response]
  5. Inter-Trial Interval: Brief pause between consecutive trials

5 ABA Instructional Methodologies

1. Discrete Trial Training
2. Incidental Teaching
3. Direct Instruction
4. Precision Teaching
5. Personalized System of Instruction

4 Ways to Introduce Targets:

1. Mass Trial: Presentation of a single S^D for new material on acquisition. Prompts are normally included if necessary and all trials are reinforced at the beginning of this process. Individuals should receive 80-100% accuracy in the mass trial phase alone and with a neutral distracter before proceeding to the next phases. 

5 ABA Instructional Methodologies

1. Discrete Trial Training
2. Incidental Teaching
3. Direct Instruction
4. Precision Teaching
5. Personalized System of Instruction

4 Ways to Introduce Targets:

2. Block Trials: Giving a 'block' of one S^D followed by a block of another S^D. The target changes one time during the series of trials. 

5 ABA Instructional Methodologies

1. Discrete Trial Training
2. Incidental Teaching
3. Direct Instruction
4. Precision Teaching
5. Personalized System of Instruction

4 Ways to Introduce Targets:

3. Expanded Trials: Adding or inserting distracters between the S^Ds that are currently on acquisition. [Make sure distracters have been mastered]

5 ABA Instructional Methodologies

1. Discrete Trial Training
2. Incidental Teaching
3. Direct Instruction
4. Precision Teaching
5. Personalized System of Instruction

4 Ways to Introduce Targets:

4. Random Rotation: Presenting any random / new S^D within a set of mastered items.

• Called DISCRETE because there is a clear beginning and ending.
• DTT teaches DISCRIMINATED OPERANTS; The answer is correct only when the particular S^D is present.
• Discriminated vs. Free Operant:
  • Free Operant is not discrete, is a response class w/o limits; may be freely & repeatedly emitted, No S^D is required for response to be emitted.
• How to report data:
  
  • Free Operant: FREQUENCY / RATE
  • DTT / Discriminated Operant: PERCENT CORRECT

Ex: Free Operant: letting a child play with any toy in a playroom. 

Ex: Discrete Operant: "You can only earn Sr⁺ if you play with muppets, and will not earn Sr⁺ if you play with anything else"  Muppets = S^D that Sr⁺ is available.

5 ABA Instructional Methodologies

1. Discrete Trial Training
2. Incidental Teaching
3. Direct Instruction
4. Precision Teaching
5. Personalized System of Instruction

AKA: In-Situ Training, Naturalistic Teaching, Non-Intensive Teaching

• Embedding learning opportunities in ongoing, everyday activities with a focus on a child's interest and initiations
• 6 Principles Guiding Incidental Teaching:
  1. Natural Environment: ...is conducted in the settings that will maintain the newly acquired verbal skills.
  2. Timing: ...is conducted throughout the day, naturally, by all parties
  3. Training Loosely: ...trains loosely as the teach er takes advantage of Sr⁺ selected by the client.
  4. Indiscriminable Contingencies: ...uses contingencies that are not very discriminated, compared to DTT's overt contingencies. 
  5. Facilitates Generalization: Better than all other instructional methodologies because of loose training. 
  6. Language Use / Verbal Skills: ...uses MOs to build verbal skills to request items.

5 ABA Instructional Methodologies

1. Discrete Trial Training
2. Incidental Teaching
3. Direct Instruction
4. Precision Teaching
5. Personalized System of Instruction

• A published ABA instructional methodology that involves
  1. curriculum
  2. small groups
  3. fast-paced teaching
  4. scripts
  5. signals & choral responding 
  6. applying specific techniques for correcting / preventing errors
• ALL CHILDREN CAN LEARN
• 6 Principles Guiding Direct Instruction:
  1. Carefully Designed Curriculum: Creating and teaching T.A.s for each skill, starting with basic skills and moving towards complex skills
  2. Teaching in Small Groups: Students are assessed and placed into small groups to help efficiency of learning
  3. Fast-Paced Teaching: Teach more in less time → remain focused on material. 
  4. Scripts: Following scripts gives teachers empirically validated ways to explain lessons, examples, in exact wording. 
  5. Signals / Choral Responding: giving a SIGNAL which tells students when to participate. After signal students CHORALLY RESPOND.
  6. Techniques for Correcting / Preventing Errors: ...graphing errors, supplying correct answers in discrimination tasks, prompting muse of multi-step strategy
• Project Follow Through: (60's-70's) Large-scale longitudinal study that compared educational methodologies. 
  • D.I. beat out all other methodologies in reading, math, spelling, & language

5 ABA Instructional Methodologies

1. Discrete Trial Training
2. Incidental Teaching
3. Direct Instruction
4. Precision Teaching
5. Personalized System of Instruction

• A formal individualized ABA instructional method for learning or practicing skills until they are fluent or automatic
• 4 Principles Guiding Precision Teaching:
  1. The Student is Always Right: if student is not doing well, the teacher is responsible for making changes.
  2. Directly Observable Behavior: the material that needs to be learned must be observable and measurable (i.e., not private events).
  3. Rate & Frequency: Are teh measures of behavior, not percent correct
     • Fluency: Accuracy + speed
     • Tool skills: basic foundational components of more complex skills.
  4. Ration Charts: Standard Celeration Charts
     • Semi-logarithmic scaling of y-axis
     • Charts academic  and social behaviors. 

5 ABA Instructional Methodologies

1. Discrete Trial Training
2. Incidental Teaching
3. Direct Instruction
4. Precision Teaching
5. Personalized System of Instruction

AKA: Keller Plan

• A method of instruction focusing on mastery learning that allows students to progress through materials at their own pace.
• An ABA instructional methodology characterized by S.U.P.L.E.
  1. self-pacing
  2. unit mastery
  3. proctoring
  4. lectures for Sr⁺
  5. emphasis on written word
• 5 Principles Guiding Precision Teaching:
  
  1. Self Pacing: Students proceed with learning material at their own pace, w/o punishment. 
  2. Unit Mastery: 90% accuracy is required before advancing through units. 
  3. Proctors: Students that are further along in a program; they grade tests and provide feedback for other students. 
  4. Lectures for Sr⁺: professors hold administrative roles, they do not use lectures for acquisition. Fun and interesting lectures are used to reinforce students for achieving predetermined mastery criterion.
  5. Emphasis on Written Word: Student individually studies required material [books]; no lectures are provided.

5 ABA Instructional Methodologies

1. Discrete Trial Training
2. Incidental Teaching
3. Direct Instruction
4. Precision Teaching
5. Personalized System of Instruction

• A method of instruction focusing on mastery learning that allows students to progress through materials at their own pace.