Term
|
Definition
| consists of the major planets, satellites of the planets, and other objects that are gravitationally bound to the Sun (comets, minor planets including asteroids, and interplanetary dust). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| clouds of dust and gas, which can form stars and their solar systems |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| early melting of the crust due to heating upon contraction of the early planet (4.6 to ~ 4.0 b.y. ago) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| continued accretion of planetesimals in the form of meteors, asteroids, and small planets continually hitting the rocky surface and adding mass and heat to the planet (~4.0 to ~3.0 b.y. ago) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| development of a stable crust upon which oceans and ice sheets may form after an atmosphere develops around the planet (~3.0 b.y. ago to present); light impacts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a body about 6,800 km across made mainly of Fe and Ni; temperatures = 5,000oC +; pressures = 3.5 x 109 atmospheres; solid in the interior part and liquid on the outer part; metallic bonds |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the bulk of the Earth’s mass; a thick layer around the core consisting of minerals rich in O, Si, Mg, and Fe; much denser than crust; ionic bonds prevail |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a thin (~100 km) layer of rock under low enough pressure and high enough temperature to behave as a ductile material; ductile nature allows crustal plates to move upon it; this ductile material deforms under pressure from above |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a thin (few km to 70 km) layer or shell on the outer part of the Earth; lighter elements are concentrated here (density 2.6 to 3.0 versus 5.52 g/cm3 for the whole Earth) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| while still in its Hadean stage of evolution, Earth was struck by a small planet that was in an Earth-crossing orbit about the Sun; the impact of this small body on the early Earth sent huge quantities of mantle material from Earth and the small planet into orbit about the Earth; this orbiting material coalesced into the Moon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mercury, Venus, Mars, and the Moon all show vast numbers of impact craters, large circular pits and basins formed by cosmic impacts; these bodies do not have atmospheres, so weathering and erosion have not removed these scars as has occurred on Earth |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| any gas that accumulated around an inner planet due to gravitational attraction during accretion was probably blown away during the T-tauri phase of the Sun (note: this did not happen with the outer planets, and they probably still have their early atmospheres) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| follows the T-tauri phase of the Sun |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| volcanoes and fissures bring molten material and gasses to the surface from within the planet; main gasses thus entering the new atmosphere: H2O; CO2; CH4; NH3; H2; this process at a slow pace is continuing today on Earth; on Venus, this is still occurring today |
|
|
Term
| Gravitational Escape Phase |
|
Definition
| planets with gravitational attraction that is low and thus allow excited atoms of the upper atmosphere to escape into space (excitation energy exceeds escape velocity); examples: Moon, Mars, Mercury; Earth lost much of its early H and He this way |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| On Earth (maybe Mars long ago), evolution of photosynthetic organisms that produce O as waste gas (beginning about 3.5 b.y. ago) caused a change in the atmosphere: Oxygen build-up began. O level has been rising since 3.5 b.y. ago and today stands at ~ 20%. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The Jovian planets are gas giants |
|
|
Term
| Galilean Moons of Jupiter |
|
Definition
| 4 large inner satellites, each a small world of its own |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Inner moon, the most volcanically active planet in our solar system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the next moon, a ice world with huge fissure cracks in the icy crust; may have a liquid ocean below the ice crust; most probable home of life outside Earth in this solar system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the third moon from Jupiter, an ice world with a possible ocean below the ice; may harbor marine life as well |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the outer large moon of Jupiter, an ice world that is the most heavily cratered body in the solar system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a moon so large it is about the size of Mercury; a cloud-shrouded, methane (CH4) ice world with methane lakes and rivers; surface is covered with several meters of organic matter produced by chemical reactions in the atmosphere; visited by a robotic lander in 2004;2700 km in diameter; density = 2.06 g/cm3 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| largest of the 8 major satellites of Uranus; diameter = 1575 km; density = 1.71 g/cm3 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small, rocky, minor planets that orbit the Sun; |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small, rock bodies coated by ices, which mainly dwell outside the solar system in the Kuiper belt and Oort cloud (beyond Pluto) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small fragments (boulders to dust-size grains) that orbit the Sun |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a meteoroid that enters Earth’s atmosphere and burns up due to heat of entry causing a bright flash of light in the night sky (velocity = ~ 20 to 70 km/sec); also called “shooting stars” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| any piece of space debris that passes through Earth’s atmosphere and impacts or lands on the surface |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| belts where molten rock (magma) from the upper mantle or lower crust come to the surface (emerging liquid rock is called lava). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| belts where there are planes of weakness and breakage in brittle crustal rocks; site for potential energy converting into mechanical (seismic) energy or tsunami (seismic sea waves) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| physical displacement of great segments of the Earth’s crust; can be directly measured using GPS and other technology |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| concept that the crust of the Earth is broken up into several (~ 15) large plates, as well as several smaller ones. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a segment of the Earth’s crust that is a rigid slab of rock ~100 km thick each of which moves on a plastic layer just below it (Earth’s asthenosphere, the upper part of the mantle) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| contain volcanic mountain ranges and spreading centers that demonstrate how the ocean floor is formed at mid-ocean ridges and moves away gradually away from these ridges; sediment thickens toward the continents and away from mid-ocean ridges further showing a progressively younger age of ocean floor at the center of the ocean basin. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the study of the ancient distribution of lands, seas, and environments. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| supercontinent comprised of all land masses that existed about 250 to 140 million years ago. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| new plate material (rock) is formed here; site of volcanism, shallow low-magnitude earthquakes, and features formed by tension (pulling apart), for example, rift valleys. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| plates come together at a rate of a few cm/yr; crust buckles up to form folded mountain chains (the process of orogeny); sea floor crust is taken back into the Earth (the process of subduction); volcanoes arise from melting during subduction; great earthquakes occur due to break up of crust undergoing subduction; ocean trenches are formed as a result of subduction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process of taking part of a plate back into the Earth, where the plate is melted and reabsorbed as part of the mantle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| where plates glide past one another along a great crustal fault zone; powerful earthquakes, but no volcanoes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| site of initial earthquake motion in the Earth’s crust |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| map location on the surface above the focus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| shallow focus only; weak (low R) but frequent; epicenters are clusters above the Hot Spot area |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| unpredictable, violently erupting volcanoes with steep sides (landslide hazards) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| relatively predicable, not generally violently erupting, but they erupt with very hot lavas that spread over large areas; steam explosions on contact with groundwater |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| much like divergent volcanoes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| powerful earthquakes can be associated with convergent and transform boundaries |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| seismic sea waves triggered by earthquakes at sea or submarine landslides; usually affected the coastline on the opposite side of the ocean from the earthquake |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| study of earthquake vibrations and what they can tell us about the Earth, especially its interior |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| waves in which molecules move back and forth in the same direction as the wave moves; fast waves that travel several km/sec through solid rock, liquid, and gasses |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| waves in which molecules move up and down perpendicular to the direction of wave motion; slow waves that cannot pass through a liquid or gas (only solid rock) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| liquid water turning into vapor |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Frozen water turning into vapor directly |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Water leaving plant tissue as vapor |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Water moving as liquid across the land surface |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| redistribute solar heat in sea water across the Earth; affects Earth’s weather and climate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| current systems involving return flow of cold water to lower latitudes; mainly occurs in large ocean basins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| colder deep water flows up at coastalareas due to wind energy pushing surface water away from land |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cold water from polar areas thatflows down to sea floor and toward the equator; cold water is colder and more dense |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| due to weathering of rocks on land, and transportation of dissolved elements into the sea; saltiness at present level since ~ 3.5 billion years ago |
|
|
Term
| Removal of Salt from the Ocean |
|
Definition
| evaporation of sea water causes saturation and then precipitation of salt crystals; organisms in the sea also take up dissolved minerals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 265,000-125,000 years ago |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 435,000-300,000 years ago |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1.8 m.y. - 500,000 years ago |
|
|
Term
| Milankovitch Theories of Ice Ages |
|
Definition
| Variations in Earth’s rotation and orbit make slight variations in total amount of solar radiation absorbed by Earth’s atmosphere; when all 3 Milankovitch factors work together |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| short term variations in the state of the atmosphere at a given time and place |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| long pattern of weather for a given region |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| severe storms that start as low pressure systems over warm ocean water; have cyclonic movement; wind 50 to 300 km/hr; requires warm ocean water during northern hemisphere summer |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| strong tropical storms of the Atlantic |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| strong tropical storms of the Pacific |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small scale, violent, rotating funnels of air; winds 300 to 500 km/hr; more common when seasons change |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 4 to 7 year cycles of weather in Northern hemisphere; due to winds `blowing across the Pacific, which affects water circulation patterns in the Pacific basin causing unusually warm waters in equatorial areas and much rain |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the opposite of El Niño (cold waters … dry conditions) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| geologic times of high average global temperature |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| geologic times of low average global temperature |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| rocks that solidified from liquid rock (magma) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| rocks made of grains and crystals from other rocks; pre-existing rocks must be disintegrated and decomposed (rock weathering) to make materials (sediments) needed to make sedimentary rocks |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| rocks that form by solid-state changes in pre-existing rocks that have been heated and put under high pressure (but not melted) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| branch of science that focuses on natural living systems; study of matter and energy of whole natural systems |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| all different kinds of living things in an area (“the community”) plus the physical surroundings of these living things; can be of many scales (sizes) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| obtain atoms and energy from ecosystems and make organic molecules |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sustained by consuming producers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bacteria, fungi, and others who renew the raw materials of life |
|
|
Term
| Law of Unintended Consequences |
|
Definition
| It is virtually impossible to change one aspect or variable of a complex system without affecting other aspects or variables in the system, usually in unpredictable or unexpected ways. |
|
|
