-According to aristotle: circular motion was perfect, the universe was filled with heavenly bodies therefore this perfect motion was appropriate, these heavenly bodies consisted of a non-material, incorruptible "quintessence" 

-beyond the tenth sphere was the empyrean heaven where god and all the saved souls

-Christianized Ptolemaic universe: was finite with a fixed outer boundary in harmony with christian thought and expectations.

-Greek physician who lived in the second century AD

-Influence on the medieval medical world was pervasive in anatomy, physiology, and disease.  

-relied on animal, rather than human, dissection to arrive a picture of human anatomy that was quite inaccurate in many instances

-the greatest astronomer of antiquity, 2nd c AD

-Geocentric conception

-universe was seen as a series of concentric spheres with a fixed or motionless earth at its center.  

-Christianized ptolemaic universe was finite

-natural philosophers=medieval scientists

-preferred refined logical analysis to systematic observations of the natural world

-world="god's handiwork" so we should study it

--Medieval scholars made use of aristotle, galen, and ptolemy to learn physics, medicine, and astronomy (looked to greeks)

-by the end of the 16th century hermetic magic had become fused with alchemical thought into a single intellectual framework.  

-believed that the world was a living embodiment of divinity

-humans had a spark of devinity so they could use magic, to understand and dominate for beneficial purposes.  

-1473-1543

-was aware of ancient views that contradicted the ptolemaic earth centered conception of the universe

-b/w 1506 and 1530 he completed On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres but didn't publish it until 1543

-Created the heliocentric conception which was simpler and more accurate than the ptolemaic explanation

-universe consisted of eight spheres with the sun motionless at the center and the sphere of fixed stars at rest in the eighth sphere

-was basically conservative, didn't reject aristotle's principle so he ended up with a system almost as complicated as that of the alexandrian astronomer

-nonetheless, his heliocentric system raised questions about aristotle's astronomy and physics and also about the human role in the universe as well as god's location 

-protestants were very against it being so adherent to scripture

-Danish Nobleman, 1546-1601

-provided important material which led to kepler's work

-rejected the ptolemaic system, but couldn't accept copernicus' system either

-was Brahe's assistent

-1571-1630

-his work illustrates well the narrow line that often separated magic and science in the early scientific revolution

-three laws of planetary motion: (confirmed copernicus' heliocentric system)

- first two were published in 1609

1. rejected Aristotle by showing that the orbits of the planets around the sun were not circular but elliptical, with the sun at one focus of the ellipse

2. demonstrated that the speed of a planet is greater when it is closer to the sun and decreases as its distance from the sun increases, which destroyed a fundamental aristotelian tenet that copernicus had shared

-published ten years later:

3. established that the square of a planet's period of revolution is proportional to the cube of its average distance from the sun

-his three laws effectively eliminated the idea of uniform circular motion as well as the idea of crystalline spheres revolving in circular orbits

 -1564-1642

-first european to make systematic observations of the heavens by means of a telescope, thereby inaugurating a new age in astronomy

-Said the earth/universe was not perfect or divine but that the earth was made of the same material as the rest of the universe therefore what applies to the universe applies to earth

-Separated the spiritual world from the physical world of science

-was excomunicated

 -1642

-Wrote Principia 

-universal law of gravitation

-demonstrated that one universal law, mathematically proved, could explain all motion in the universe

-believed that god was "everywhere present" and acted as the force that moved all bodies

-attempted to put forth a new method of acquiring knowledge, made an impact on the royal society in england in the 17th c. 

-1561-1626

-Rejected copernicus and kepler, misunderstood Galileo

-Did not doubt humans' ability to know the natural world, but he believed that they had proceeded incorrectly

-Bacon's new foundation, a correct SCIENTIFIC METHOD, was to be built on inductive principles. urged scientists to proceed from the particular to the general

-René Descartes (1596-1650) reflected the doubt and uncertainty that seemed pervasive in the confusion of the 17th c. and ended with a philosophy that dominated western thought until the 20th c. 

-Wrote Discourse on Method in 1637

-Doubt was his starting point, he was certain only of his existence

-accepted only the things which his reason said were true

-separated mind and matter in his theories

-absolute duality between mind and body, called Cartesian dualism

-"using mind or human reason, the path to certain knowledge, and its best instrument, mathematics, humans can understand the material world because it is pure mechanism, a machine that is governed by its own physical laws because it was created by God, the great geometrician"

-Descartes=father of modern rationalism, was condemned originally by many protestant theologians.

-between 1506 and 1530 Copernicus completed the manuscript of this famous book

-didn't publish it until May 1543

-offered a hopefully simpler and more accurate explanation for the universe, the heliocentric system

-Synthesis of Christianity and Platonism by Marsilio Ficino

-based on two primary oideas

1) the neoplatonic hierarchy of substances (plants to God)

2) theory of spiritual love (everything is bound together by sympathetic love)

-Published in 1610, this book demonstrated Galileo's revelations and stunned his contemporaries and probably did more to make Europeans aware of the new picture of the universe than the mathematical theories of Copernicus and Kepler did. 

-Galileo revealed himself as a firm proponent of Copernicus' heliocentric system

-the roman inquisition of the catholic church condemned copernicanism and ordered Galileo to reject the copernican thesis

-1542-1621

-one of the most important Catholic figures in the counter-reformation

-italian jesuit and cardinal of the catholic church

-In 1632 Galileo published this most famous work

-unlike most scholarly treatises it was written in italian rather than latin, making it more widely available to the public

-defended copernican system

-got galileo placed under house arrest

Principia (The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy)

-from 1684-1686 Isaac Newton wrote Principia

-he demonstrated the mathematical proofs for his universal law of gravitation and completed the new cosmology begun by copernicus, kepler, and galileo.  

-also described the rules of reasoning by which he arrived at his universal law.  

-for the first time, newton pieced together a coherent synthesis for a new cosmology

-Galen's doctrine of four bodily humors: blood, considered warm and mois; yellow bile, warm and dry; phlegm, cold and moist; and black bile, cold and dry

-disease was an imbalance of humors that could be discerned from the quantity and color of urine

- 1493-1541

-Rejected the work of both aristotle and galen and attacked the universities as centers of their moribund philosophy. 

-hoped to replace the traditional system with a new chemical philosophy that was based on a new understanding of nature

-Macrocosm-microcosm analogy:

-humans (microcosm) are a small replica of the larger world (macrocosm) 

-all parts of the universe were represented within each person

-disease was not caused by an imbalance of the four humors, as galen had argued, but was due to chemical imbalances that were localized in specific organs 

-DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF DISEASE

-Paraclesus and his followers were against the galenic principle that contraries cure, and instead favored the ancient germanic folk principle that like cures like

-the poison that caused a disease would eb its cure if used in proper form and quantity

-NEW ANATOMY OF 16th CENT

-1514-1564

-would personally dissect bodies to illustrate what he was discussing during his lectures

-carefully examined individual organs and general structure of the human body

-his study of medicine at paris involved him in the works of galen

-emphasized practical research as the principal avenue for understanding human anatomy.  

-wrote On the Fabric of the Human Body

-published by vesalius in 1543

-based on his paduan lectures

-deviated from traditional practiece by personally dissecting a body to illustrate what he was discussing

-1578-1657

-his work on the circulation of the blood finally corrected the galenic misperceptions

-his work was based on meticulous observations and experiments

-demolished the ancient greek erroneous contentions and demonstrated that the heart and not the liver was the beginning point of the circulation of blood in the body

-his theory of the circulation of the blood laid the foundation for modern physiology

-Written and published by william harvey in 1628

-based on meticulous observations and experiments

-demolished the ancient greek's erroneous contentions

-demonstrated that the herat and not the liver was the beginning point of the circulation of blood in the body

-1647-1717

-good example of female involvement in the sci rev stemming from the craft tradition 

-established a reputation as an important entomologist by the beginning of the 18th c.  

-most famous female astronomer in germany

-1670-1720

-corresponded with leibniz 

-had difficulties with the berlin academy b/c she was a woman and couldn't get the university degree

-the centuries-long debate about the nature and value of women 

-arguments about women

-by descartes

-explains that each step in an argument should be as sharp and well founded as a mathematical proof

-

-written by francis bacon using inductive reasoning to come up with the scientific method

-did not finish it, it was published after his death

-Bacon started it

-find specific things based on reason, and create general concepts from there

-medieval

-general ideas to specifics

-god created everything, therefore the way humans work is based on what god wanted

-1632-1677

-unwilling to accept the implications of descartes' ideas, especially the separation of mind and matter and the apparent separation of an infinite god from the finite world of matter

-believed in pantheism, or monism, saying the god IS the universe, everything is in him and he his in everything.

-"everything has a rational explanation, and humans are capable of finding it.  In using reason, people can find true happiness.  Their real freedom comes when they understand the order and necessity of nature and achieve detachment from passing interests

-

-1623-1662

-French scientist who sought to keep science and religion united

-was assured that god cared for the human soul, so he devoted the rest of his life to religious matters.  planned to write an "apology  for the christian religion 

-determined to show that the christian religion was not contrary to reason.  He believed that christianity was the only religion that recognized people's true state of being as both vulnerable and great

-refused to rely on the scientist's world of order and rationality to attract people to God

-the world of nature could never reveal god

-failed to achieve his goal of uniting religion and science, came to rely primarily on faith saying reason can only take you so far

-Pascal

-tried to convert rationalists to christianity by appealing to both their reason and their emotions

-humans were, he argued, frail creatures, often deceived by their senses, misled by reason, and battered by their emotions

-evolved out of informal gatherings of scientists in 1640s, did not receive an official charter from King Charles II until 1662

-Received little government encouragement and its fellows simply co-opted new members

-world's first scientific journal

-established scientific priority (forcing everyone to live by reason) and peer review

-established in england under king charles II

-published by the English Royal Society

-defined the Enlightenment as “man’s leaving his self-caused immaturity”.  

-1784

-Kant says "dare to know!"

-by fontenelle

-presented in the form of an intimate conversation between a lady aristocrat and her lover who are engaged in conversation under the stars

-communicated that body of scientific knowledge in a clear and even witty fashion that appealed to his upper-class audiences

-(1647-1706) 

-especially demonstrated skepticism

-remained a protestant while becoming a leading critic of traditional 

religious attitudes.  

-attacked superstition, religious intolerance, and dogmatism. 

-compelling people to believe a set of religious ideas is wrong and creates 

hypocrites; individual conscience should determine one’s actions. 

-argued for complete religious toleration, maintaining that the existence of 

many religions would benefit rather than harm the state

-believed that the new rational principles of textual criticism should be applied to the bible as well as secular documents.  

-Locke argues that everybody is born with a tabula rasa and that our opinions are created by experiences

-The intellectuals of the Enlightenment

-Charles de secondat, the baron de Montesquieu came from French nobility.  

Attacked religious freedom, advocated religious toleration, denounced 

slavery, and used reason to liberate humans from their prejudices. 

-Wrote The Spirit of the Laws, 1748, a treatise that was a comparative study of governments in which Montesquieu attempted to apply the scientific method to the social and political arena to ascertain the “natural laws” governing the social relationships of human beings.  

-three kinds of government: 

1. reoublic-suitable for smal states and based on citizen involvement

2. monarchy-appropriate for middle-sized states and grounded in the 

ruling class’s adherence to the law

3. despotism-apt for large empires and dependent on fear to inspire 

obedience.  

-put great importance on checks and balances created by means of a separation of powers. 

-written by montesquieu

-1748

-a treatise that was a comparative study of governments in which montesquieu attempted to apply the scientific method to the social and political arena to ascertain the "natural laws" governing the social relationships of human beings

-Salons were just as important as publication and printings

-came into being in the 17th c. but were popular in 18th.  

-the elegant drawing rooms in the urban houses of the wealthy where invited philosophes and guests gathered to converse.  

-women were suddenly given some power to sway powerful people in certain ways as hosts of the salons

-was a haven for opinions that were unwelcome in the royal court

-French

-Greatest figure of the enlightenment, 1694-1778

-a young playwright much impressed by England

-by saying what’s great about England he criticized many of the ills 

oppressing France (royal absolutism and the lack of religious toleration and 

freedom of thought)

-known for his criticism of traditional religion and his strong attachment to the ideal of religious toleration.  

-1763: penned his Treatise on Toleration in which he argued that religious toleration had created no problems for England and Holland and reminded governments that “all men are brothers under god”.  

-deism: a religious outlook shared by most other philosophes.  Build on the Newtonian world-machine, which suggested the existence of a mechanic (god) who had created the universe.  

-to Voltaire and most other philosophes god had no direct involvement in the world he had created and allowed it to run according to its own natural laws

-1763

-Voltaire argued in this book that religious toleration had created no problems for England and Holland and reminded governments that “all men are brothers under god”.

-the belief that there is a higher power out there but it is not necessarily the God of organized religions and it does not effect one's daily life

-popular during the enlightenment when reason began to destroy belief in the Christian God

-(1713-1784) 

-French

-xty=fanatical and unreasonable

-28 volume encyclopedia that he edited. Its purpose was to “change the 

general way of thinking”.  It became a weapon of the philosophe’s crusade 

against the old French society. Spread ideas of enlightenment.

-Diderot's most famous contribution to the enlightenment

-its purpose according to diderot was to change the general way of thinking

-accomplished this and became a major weapon of the philosophes' crusade against the old French society

-(1711-1776)

-important figure in the history of philosophy, called a pioneering social 

scientist. Strongly believed that a science of man was possible. 

-scottish philosopher

-In his Treatise on Human Nature  he argues that observation and reflection, 

grounded in “systematized common sense” made conceivable a “science of 

man”.  

-leading economist

-1723-1790

-emphasized the idea of laissez-faire

-government should have very minimal involvement

-wrote the wealth of nations

-believed that not gold/silver but soil was the true source of a nation's wealth

-founders of the modern discipline of economics along with adam smith

-a doctrine that says the state should in no way interrupt the free play of natural economic forces by government regulation of the economy but rather should just leave it alone 

-promoted strongly by adam smith and the physiocrats

-(1738-1794)

-appalled by the unjust laws and brutal punishments of the 18th century he sought to create a new approach to justice

-an italian philosophe

-wrote on crimes and punishments  in 1764 and argued that punishments should serve only as deterrents, not as exercises in brutality.  

-opposed to the use of capital punishment b/c it doesn't work and it sets an example of barbarity to society.  

-(1723-1789)

-wealthy German Aristocrat in Paris

-preached a doctrine of strict atheism and materialism.

-wrote System of Nature in 1770 which argued that everything in the universe consisted of matter in motion.  Human beings=machines, god was a product of the human mind and was unnecessary for leading a moral life.  People only need REASON

-(1743-1794)

-French philosophe

-claimed for progress

-Wrote The Progress of the Human Mind while hiding during the French Revolution.  

-survey of human history convinced him that humans had progressed through 9 stages and that they were about to enter the tenth and perfect stage due to science and reason

-(1712-1778)

-criticized his predecessors.  

-born in geneva, went to paris but frequently withdrew into periods of solitude

-wrote Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind where he began with humans in their primitive condition where they were happy, there were no laws and all people were equal.  To preserve property, people adopted laws which put them in chains.  Government=necessary evil.  

-Wrote The Social Contract in 1762 where he harmonized individual liberty with governmental authority.  An agreement on the part of an entire society to be governed by its general will.  general will=community's highest aspirations, what's best for the whole community.  Liberty is achieved through being forced to follow what was best for all the people, therefore what's best for the individual. 

-Made an extreme and idealistic statement but it is the ultimate statement of participatory democracy.  

-Wrote Emile in 1762 which was one of the enlightenment's most important works on education.  general treatise on the education of the natural man.  Said education should foster rather than restrict children's natural instincts.  Had an emphasis on heart and sentiment which made him a precursor of the intellectual movement called Romanticism (19th c.).  

-written by Rousseau in 1762

-tried to harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority

-basically an agreement on the part of an entire society to be governed by its general will, if any individual wished to follow his own self-interest he should e compelled to abide by the general will

-

-1699-1777

-when the encyclopedia was suppressed by the french authorities, she welcomed the encyclopedists in her salon and offered financial assistance to complete the work in secret.  

-despite the popularity of rococo style, neoclassicism continued to maintain a strong appeal and in the late 18th c. emerged in france as an established movement

-these artists wanted to recapture the dignity and simplicity of the classical style of ancient greece and rome

-By the 1730's a new style known as Rococo began to affect decoration and architecture all over europe

-emphasized grace and gentle action

-rejected strict geometrical patterns and had a fondness for curves

-highly secular, its lightness and charm spoke of the pursuit of pleasure, happiness, and love

-(1684-1721)

-rococo's appeal was evident in his work

-his lyrical views of aristocratic life (refined, civilized, sensual) reflected a world of upper-class pleasure and joy.  

-underneath, there was an element of sadness as the artist revealed the fragility and transitory nature of pleasure, love, and life. 

- (1687-1753)

-one of the greatest architects of the 18th c.  

-designed both palaces and churches

-the pilgrimage church of the fourteen saints and the Bishop's Palace were his two masterpieces.  

-Interchanges secular and spiritual

-lavish and fanciful ornament, light, bright colors, and elaborate, rich detail were signature moves of his. 

-1685-1750

-german

-saint matthews passion, mass in B Minor

-music was above all means a worship to god for bach

-1685-1759

-german

-profoundly secular

-was best known, though, for his religious pieces like the Messiah

-1756-1791

-child prodigy

-brought the concerto, symphony, and opera to their zenith

-Their emphasis on science and reason and their dislike of Christianity made the Philosophes less than sympathetic to the period we call the middle ages

-particularly noticeable in this book of historiography by edward gibbon 

-gibbon thought the decline of rome had many causes, he protrayed the growth of xty as a major reason for rome's eventual collapse

-a magazine that wished to instruct and entertain at the same time

-with its praise of family, marriage, and courtesy, it also had a strong appeal to women

-started making surgeons have to get a surgical license before they could practice

-before, anybody could be a surgeon. normally barbors were

-forced people to study anatomy and understand their practice 

-carnival was celebrated in the weeks leading up to the beginning of Lent, a time of great indulgence, 

-The portuguese monarch destroyed the powerful jesuit state in paraguay and then in 1759 expelled the jesuits from portugal and confiscated their property

-in 1764 they were expelled from france and three years later from spain and the spanish colonies.  

-following the portuguese expulsion, pope clement XIV agreed to dissolve the jesuit order upon the demands of france and spain

-the dissolution of the jesuit order, on important pillar of catholic strength, was yet another victory for catholic governments determined to win control over their churches. 

-the largest number of jews

-lived in eastern europe

-were restricted in their movements, forbidden to own land or hold many jobs, forced to pay burdensome special taxes, and also subject to periodic outbursts of popular wrath

- a major group who had been expelled from spain in the 15th c.  

-many migrated to turkish lands, but some settled in cities where they were relatively free to participate in the banking and commercial activites 

-the highly successful ones came to provide valuable services to rulers especially in central europe where they were known as the court jews

-in germany was a response to this desire for a deeper personal devotion to God of protestants. 

-begun in the 17th c. by a group of german clerics who wished their religion to be more personal

-was spread by the teachings of Count Nikolaus von Zinzendorf

-his sect was the Moravian Brethren, they all believed it was the mystical dimensions, the personal experience of God, in one's life that constituted true religious experience.  

-utterly opposed to what he perceived as the rationalistic approach of orthodox lutheran clergy, who were being educated in "new rational ideas".  

-(1703-1791) 

-an ordained anglican minister who experienced a deep spiritual crisis and underwent a mystical experience

-"gift of god's grace" assured him of salvation and led him to become a missionary to the english people

-all could be saved by experiencing god and opening the doors to his grace

-took the gospel to people and preached to the masses in open fields, appealing especially to the lower classes neglected by the socially elitist anglican church.  

-converts were organized into methodist societies or chapels in which they could aid each other in doing the good works that wesley considered a component of salvation.  

-methodism was an important revival of christianity and proved that the need for spiritual experience had not been expunged by the eighteenth century search for reason.  

-separation of mind and matter

-separation of what we think, spiritual, and the physical things that actually are