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| "Lord Kelvin", Built first lab at U of Glasgow in 1840 |
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| Coined the word "Scientist" in 1840 to replace "natural philosopher" |
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| Robert Wilhelm Bunson and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff |
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| Built first Spectroscope in 1860 |
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| Friedrich Kekule won Stradoniz |
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| Came up with idea for arranging atomic symbols in structured diagrams |
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| Came up with idea to use Avogadro's hypotheis for molecular weight and Berzelius' atomic weights |
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| **Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev |
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| Periodic table of elements, in 1869 he predicted 2 new elements from his table (eka-silicon and eka-aluminum), Wrote "on the relation of the properties to th e atomic weights of elements" in 1869 |
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| Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran |
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| Discovered the first of Mendeleev's elements, eka-aluminum |
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| John Alexander Reina Newlands |
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| Came up with the "law of octaves" though his theory was ignored until Mendeleev |
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| Came up with the theory, based upon Rayleigh's report that there was an unknown denser gas that made up 1/20 of the atmosphere, discovered it to be Argon, (he named is since it was chemically inert since it was a noble gas, or part of the "Zero-Group") |
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| Called the lights in the tubes (cathode tubes) cathode rays and suggested that the light was caused by rays coming from the negative electrode and striking the glass |
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| Suggested that cathode radiation was caused by the collision of particles |
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| Showed that cathode rays are not deflected by electrically charged metal plates which indicated (incorrectly) that cathode rays cannot be charged particles, Saw that rays could penetrate thin metal sheets but that they emerged in a disturbed state so thought they must be a form of wave |
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| Designed a string and sealing wax experiemnt known as a "Crookes Tube", Named cathode rays a "fourth state of matter" |
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| Opposed Hertz and in support of Crookes thought that the Cathode Rays must be particles |
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| Discovered X Rays in December 1895 when a screen coated with a fluorescent material nearby lit up while he was working with a Crookes Tube |
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| Chosen as the third Cavendish Profesor in 1884 (with Maxwell and Rayleigh), Worked on discharges of electricity through gases. Came up with 3 theories in 1897: 1) Cathode rays are formed by negative particle of matter called corpuscles, about 1/1000 the size of a H atom, 2) The corpuscles are constituents of the atom, they are a new state of matter, 3) The corpuscles are the only constituents of the atom (which we know to be wrong) |
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| While working on seeing if certain substances can retain light as metal retains heat, he stumbled upon Uranium and discovered the first radioactive metal known to man |
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| Inspired by Becquerel came to the conclusion that the radiation must lie with the Uranium atom, so they isolated a pure sample of it thinking it would be more radioactive, though they were less. The curies then discovered the strange substance in the initial sample of Uranium which they found to be a million times more radioactive, they called it Radium, and lated also discovered Polonium |
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| Almost single handedly unraveled the mysteries of radioactivity. Found that there were 2 types of emissions, Alpha (which had little penetrating power but much ionizing power) and Beta (which had as much penetrating power as x rays but had little ionizing power) particles. The in collaboration with Soddy, in 1900, showed that a third type of radiation, unredected by magnetic fields was high energy electromagnetic radiation that he called Gamma Rays. Also discovered half lives of radioactive materials. Also theorized that through radiation, new materials are produced similar to what the alchemists sought to achieve...MORE ON P 130 HALF WAY DOWN ALREADY HIGHLIGHTED AND BOTTOM OF 132 (SODDY TOO THERE) ABOUT NEUTRONS. Also proved Einstein's equation by showing how to split the atom. His transmutation of N into O was the first artificially induced nuclear reaction. |
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| Discovered Gamma rays and saw that they could traverse plates of lead a cm thick |
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| Worked closely on radiation with Rutherford, and discovered that variations of elements can exist and called them Isotopes |
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| Discovered that Neon had 2 isotopes and succeeded in separating them with a crude magnetic centrifuge that used deflection to the outer rail by the heavier isotope |
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| Worked with Rutherford to devise a method for counting single particles through ionization by collision and another method through watching alpha particles strike a phosphorescent substance and watching it light up in spots, in 1908, and invented the Geiger Counter in 1913 |
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| Found a way to track protons by using a Nitrogen filled cloud chamber and taking pictures of the vapor trail set up by charged particles as they rushed through the water saturated gas |
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| Discovered the neutron because he saw that there were different weights of the same elements, neutron proved to be perfect for shooting at nuclei because it can penetrate the electrons without being repelled or attracted. Worked with Rutherford on atom smashing by firing protons and neutrons at atoms, they came up with the question of if there was a way to artificially accelerate them to make them smash with more force...essentially the theory behind the particle accelerator |
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| Challenged Newtonian physics with his theories of special (1905) and general (1917) relativity. Argued 7 things: 1) the only invariable quantity is the speed of light; 2) Newton was wrong to assume there is absolute motion, all motion is relative to motion of other bodies; 3) space and time too are relative, they change as bodies experience accelerations; 4) mass of bodies change when bodies accelerate near light speed; 5) gave a physical account of physical interaction between bodies, argued (against Newton), that physical interaction would be expressed by continuous propagation along curved space (think bent light around star); 6) explained the phenomenon that Newton's theories could not handle like the anomaly of the perihelion of Mercury; 7) gave a new picture of the universe as finite and curved on itself like a ball. For bodies not traveling near light speed though, Newton's views are right and good enough to plot a spacecraft |
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| Worked with Rutherford from 1912 and developed the orbital theory of electrons (Bohr Model). Went on to work on the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos. Based his scheme on the discovery by Planck that radiation was emitted in packets (quanta) and not continuously. His model of the atom allowed scientists to propose explanations to Mendeleev's Periodic Table by noting that properties of elements were caused by the outermost shell of electrons. Went on to suggest in 1927 that both Heisenberg and Schrodingers models (particle and wave respectively) were complimentary descriptions of the world, the location of a particle cannot be located with certainty, but the wave function enables one to work out the probability that a particle will be in a certain place. |
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| Father of Quantum Theory by discovering that radiation was emitted in small packets called Quanta. Also found that the size of the quantum energy is the frequency of the radiation multiplied by a small number, which he denoted "h" and is Planck's Constant |
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| His "Uncertainty Principle" asserts that any act of observation on the quantum state will disturb it, thus making it impossible for an observer to have perfect knowledge of any system (momentum and position). Can only measure either momentum or position, but not both at the same time, the more we know about its position the less about its momentum, and vice versa. |
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| Came up with the wave function for particular systems (Schrodinger's Equation). Used math to eliminate the notion that electrons can jump from one shell to another instantaneously, he drew an analogy between the vibration of a violin string jumping from one note to another). Schrodinger's Cat was a thought experiment to expose that the laws of physics are governed by probability, SEE PAGE 140 TO UNDERSTAND FULLY |
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| Showed that Heisenberg's equations (based on the superstition that electrons are particles) were equivelant to Schrodinger's wave equations |
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| Pieter van Musschenbroek and Ewald G. von Kleist |
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| In 1745 both independently discovered the Leyden Jar |
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| Made a demonstration of the power of electrical discharge at Versailles for the king by sending a charge through a company of 180 soldiers and having each jump with the shock. Also planted mustard seeds and charged one set for 8 days and saw that they crew 4 times as fast with the charge but less hardy. |
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| Discovered that lighting is electricity in 1752 with his famous kite experiment. Proposed lightning rods for building and boats to draw the electricity safely to the earth or ocean. Rejected Dufay's 2 electricity theory and believed that there was only one type of electricity and that it was within all bodies and could be brought to life through friction |
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| Believed there were 2 types of electricity, 1) by rubbing glassy substances, 2) by rubbing waxy substances |
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| Invented the electrical battery in 1800, and demonstrated it in Paris in 1801. First to develop a continuous source of electricity, (as opposed to the instant discharge that the Leyden Jar allowed). He was struck by the fact that electricity was only produces if 2 different metals were used and that certain combinations worked better than others. Built the first "pile" of metal disks separated by cardboard soaked brine, and that the current weakened as the brine separators dried out. Was inspired by the work of Luigi Galvani. |
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| Performed a series of experiments beginning around 1780 that showed that dissected frogs legs twitched when they came in contact with a spark. Decided that the twitching was caused by a force he termed "animal-electricity". Published on the topic in 1791 "Proceedings of the Bologna Academy of Sciences" |
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| *William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle |
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| After hearing of Volta's discovery built a "pile" to be used for chemistry |
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| Discovered Potassium and Sodium and how to prepare Nitrous Oxide (laughing gas). In 1802 with William H. Pepys, he constructed the strongest voltaic pile of the day with 60 pairs of plates and later one with 2000 pairs. in 1815 he an Pepys melted a section of iron and diamond dust together thereby carburizing the iron and making steel |
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| Early uses for Voltaic electricity |
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| The service of chemistry to melt things, and new ways to detonate explosives with a spark instead of a fuse |
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| Main question was do we really know what matter is or if atoms even exist. This led to many things being treated, successfully, according to the laws of matter such as light, magnetism and electricity |
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| Proved that lighting was electrical since it moved the needle on a compass, which he showed was achieved putting a conducting wire over a compass needle and noticed that the needle pointed in a direction perpendicular to it, and when he changed the direction of the current, the needle swung around 180 degrees. Also demonstrated that a connection exists between electricity and magnetism and that they could interact. Was the father of the study of Electromagnetism, and published his paper on his findings in 1820 |
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| Set up a series of experiments to show determine the relationship between current flow and magnetism and within a week had discovered that if two parallel wires carrying current attract each other if the current is in the same direction and repel if it is in the opposite direction, he also was the man who banished magnetic fluids from science when he noted that they did nothing |
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| Influenced by Oersted, 1821 began repeating every experiment done on electricity. No scientific training, was taken under Davy's wing until Davy claimed Faraday had copied his electric motor apparatus by overhearing a conversation between himself and William Wollaston. Faraday admitted he may have been led by the conversation but that his apparatus was very different, Wollaston confirmed. 1831, came up with a new approach to the generator and confirmed that the electricity generated was real electricity. Used an iron ring and wound coil around it and attached a battery and a galvanometer and when he closed the circuit the second wire flashed and made the galvanometer feebly jump, thereby turning magnetism to electricity, opposite of Oersted's experiment. Noticed that the galvanometer registered only when the magnet swung into a coil of wire and not when it was motionless (since it needs to move through the lines of force). He effectively built the first modern generator and realized that if a water wheel or steam engine were added it could generate a continuous electricity. 1833 worked to prove that there was only 1 type of electricity by setting up a tube of water in a globe and fixed and electrode on either side of the test tube, when charged it measured how much current ran through by how much water was turned to H and O. Later used 2 tubes, one to catch H and one to catch O. Introduced the words ION, ELECTROLYTE, ELECTRODE, ANODE, CATION, and CATHODE. 1845, found that a powerful static (not electro) magnet could affect a ray of light. Found 2 types of magnets (only magnetized when affected by an external magnetic field): DIAMAGNETS (repulsive), and PARAMAGNETS (attractive). Looked for a connection between gravity and electricity, 1851 published "On the Possible Relation of Gravity to Electricity" his results were negative. |
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| Pointed out that the quantity of energy set free by each elements in Faraday's electrolysis was equal to the charge of an electron |
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| In 1855 took Faradays discoveries and applied math that was to be known as "Electromagnetic Theory" to it, it showed that electricity and magnetism could not exist separately. Also found that electromagnetic fields were created by an electrical current oscillating out at a constant speed of approximately 186,000 miles per second (same as speed of light) and concluded that light must be an oscillating electrical charge. His most fundamental modification of Faraday's theory is his consideration that matter and the field were different entities. |
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| In 1888 he used a circuit to produce a type of long wave radiation that would be produced if light were in fact a type of electromagnetic radiation. Noticed that thought it traveled at the same speed its wavelength was about 2.2 feet (a million times the wavelength of visible light), its discovery led directly to radio communication, TV, radar, etc. since they all travel at the same speed as light since all of them, (light included), are electromagnetic radiation. |
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| In 1897 he formed the Wireless Telegraph and Signaling Co. Ltd, which in 1900 became Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Co. Ltd. He achieved the first international wireless transmission between England and France, and by 1901 he had transmitted across the Atlantic to North America. |
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