Term
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Definition
-The most important agricultural crop in the world
- Named after the Roman goddess Ceres
- Occupies 70% of farmland |
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Term
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Definition
- Wheat, corn, rice
- Oats, barley, rye
- Also annuals |
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Term
| Characteristics of Cereals |
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Definition
-Can be stored dry
-Good root system, requiring less water (Rice being an exception)
- High yield per acre (in tons, calories, and protein) |
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Term
| Characteristics of Cereals II |
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Definition
- Are grasses
- Have male and female structures in the same flower (perfect flower) [except corn] |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Three parts to Cereal Grains: Bran |
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Definition
-Hard outer seed
1) rich in fiber, essential fatty acids, vitamins and minerals
2) removed in milling to ‘soften’ flour
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Term
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Agricultural Improvements (after 10,000 years)
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Definition
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- Equal tiller (seedling) growth
- Equal fruiting time
- Eliminate branching (pinch buds to produce larger, sweeter fruit)
- No shattering
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Term
| Three Parts of grains: Germ |
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Definition
-the embryo of the seed
1) Source of essential nutrients: Vitamin E, folate, phosphorus, thiamin, zinc and magnesium
2) Essential fatty acids and a good source of fiber
3) Removed in milling
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-SW Asia
-Only grain used to make bread, noodles, spaghetti |
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Term
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Definition
-Grown in the south
-Sowing in late Fall
-Harvesting in May
-Has more gluten |
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Term
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Definition
-grown in the north, where winter is too cold for the plants to grow/survive
-sowing in early Spring
- harvesting in Fall |
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Term
| Grains 2 Major Components |
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Definition
-Starch
-Gluten: proteins with elastic properties |
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Term
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Definition
- Originated in the New World; "American crop"
-Ancestor is teosinte
a) Teosinte was improved by American natives to become modern corn
b) Six genes changed between teosinte and corn |
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Term
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Definition
- The grain (kernel) has no gluten and cannot be used to make bread
-Has little of the essential amino acid lysine |
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Term
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Definition
-U.S. grows about 50% of the world crop
-More than 50% of the crop is used to feed animals
-About 10% of the crop is made into corn starch
a) food thickening
b) beer
c) high fructose corn syrup |
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Term
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Definition
-Originated in Asia and spread to Europe then to the Americas
-Feeds more people than wheat or corn does |
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Term
| Rice: Traditional (labor intensive) |
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Definition
-Sow in dry land (start early, save space, organized growth)
-Transfer short plants to water-logged paddies
-Harvest by cutting all above the ground |
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Term
| Rice: in the US (energy intensive) |
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Definition
-Airplane sowing
-Flooding by an irrigation system
-Drainage
-Harvest by machine |
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Term
| Advantages of Traditional Rice Planting |
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Definition
-Standing water can prevent weed growth
-Ferns growing on the standing water have photosynthetic bacteria in leaf pockets that take in nitrogen and turn it into ammonia (fertilizer) |
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Term
| Subspecies of Rice: Indica, Japonica, Wild Rice |
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Definition
| -“long grain” grains are separate, drier -“Short grain” grains are sticky, wetter -not of the same genus |
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Term
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Definition
-Unattractive, doesn’t taste as good
-Cannot be stored as long (6-8 weeks)
-Has Vitamin B1 (essential vitamin) |
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Term
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Definition
| -Vitamin B1 -Corn syrup (tastier) -Corn starch (sticky) -Don't need to wash in U.S. |
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Term
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Definition
| a) Beans b) Peas c) Lentils d) Pulses e) Peanuts |
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Term
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Definition
| -Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by bacteria that is made available to plants by nodules on legume roots -Production of nitrates |
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Term
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Definition
| -Conversion of nitrate to nitrous oxide and nitrogen gas a) Amino acids + Nucleic acids = nitrogen b) Balances nitrogen fixation c) N2– inorganic, plants and animals can’t access |
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Term
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Definition
| -Like cereals, can be stored dry for extended periods of time -Proteins are deficient in some essential amino acids, but complement cereals -can "make" their own nitrogen fertilizers |
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Term
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Definition
| Corn: removes nitrates faster --> Soy: legumes add to nitrates --> Fallow: increases fertilizer due to bacteria |
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Term
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Definition
| -China's poor man's meat -US started growing in 1930's a) Considered to be a bad crop b/c of a poison in the bean b) found that heating destroyed the poison c) Since 1960’s rapid increase in production d) now: cash value is similar to that of corn |
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Term
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Definition
| a) more protein- 44% by weight (other beans ~10%) b) more oil- 10% (other beans ~2-4%) c) less starch d) has all 8 essential amino acids |
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Term
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Definition
| -Oil -Protein (immitation "meat") -Solid --> Fermentation--> soy sauce -Liquid: Soy milk, tofu |
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Term
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Definition
| -Contains isoflavones (acts as estrogen) -Isoflavones were thought to help stave off breast cancer since Asian women have lower rates -Mixed evidence |
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Term
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Definition
| -Fruit, Brits call it "groundnut" -South Americas, sent to Africa where European plantaion managers fed them to slaves -Slaves brought to N. America after cotton crop deteriorated due to infestation |
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Term
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Definition
| -Grows well in poor, wet soil in the south -Makes its own fertilizer -After fertilization, flower stalks elongates and curve downward -Protective cap froms at the tip and helps push flower underground |
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Term
| U.S. Consumption of Peanuts |
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Definition
| -Peanut butter -Animal feed -Peanut oil |
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Term
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Definition
| -Top cash crop in California, South Dakota, Wisconsin -Perennial plant grows best in sandy soil -Mostly grown for hay (6-7 cuttings) -High nutritional value: high protein, easily digestible fiber, formed into cubes |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-Enlarged flower after fertilization which adds in the dispersal of the seed
a) fresh fruits
b) “dry” fruits (e.g. cereals and nuts)
c) vegetables (e.g. tomato) |
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Term
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Definition
-Enlarged flower could be ovary wall, flower stalk, etc
-About 80% of agri crops are fruits |
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Term
| Simple Fruit (single fruit) |
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Definition
a) one ovary containing several fertilized eggs
b) e.g. apples |
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Term
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Definition
a) several ovaries in one flower
b) e.g. strawberry, raspberry |
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Term
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Definition
a) cluster of flowers each of which has one ovary
b) pineapples, figs |
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Term
| Pericarp; Exocarp, MesoCarp, Endocarp |
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Definition
-Fruit wall that develops from the ovary wall
-outer layer
-middle layer
-inner layer |
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Term
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Definition
-May have a tough, woody, or thin papery pericarp
-Divided into two categories, Dehiscent and Indehiscent
-His=split |
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Term
| Dry fruits: Dehiscent Fruits |
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Definition
| -Split open at maturity and release seeds individually (e.g. magnolia, cotton) |
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Term
| Dry Fruit: Indehiscent Fruits |
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Definition
| -Do not split open; use other means to disperse their seeds; single seeded fruits (e.g. sunflower, samaras, grains and nuts |
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Term
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Definition
-Single-seeded indehiscent fruit
-one seeded fruits with stony pericarp: hazelnuts, walnuts, acorns
-Peanuts, almonds and cashews are actually seeds not nuts |
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Term
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Definition
-Thin exocarp (skin of the fruit), soft fleshy mesocarp, an endocarp enclosing one to many seeds
-Tomatoes, dates, blueberries, grapes |
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Term
| Simple Fruits: Hesperidium |
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Definition
-A berry with a tough, leathery rind
-The rind is the exocarp, the mesocarp is the white below (albedo), endocarp is the juice vesicles
-Oranges, lemons, and other citrus |
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Term
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Definition
-Aspecialized berry with a tough outer rind, mesocarp and endocarp are fleshy (generally eat the mesocarp)
a) all members of the squash family (pumpkins an melons) cucumbers |
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Term
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Definition
-thin exocarp, fleshy mesocarp, hard stony endocarp that encases the seed (usually one seed)
a) peaches, cherries, olives, plums
b) the pit (endocarp) incases the seed |
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Term
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Definition
| - most of the fleshy part develops from the enlarged base of the flower (accessory tissues) a) apples and pears b) the core is the ovary |
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Term
| Seedless fruits: Triploid System |
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Definition
-A 1n sex cell fertilizes a 2N sex cell (produced artificially) to make a 3N seed- 3 sets of genes/chromosomes
-infertile
-Watermelon, pineapple, some banana |
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Term
| Seedless fruits: "Virgin fruit" |
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Definition
-Fruit formation without fertilization
-Spontaneous in nature, but can be triggered with hormones |
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Term
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Definition
-Mutation or artificial manipulation can change the interaction between hormones and plant growth, so that a fruit is produced without fertilization
-Natural mutation followed by artificial selection (navel oranges, some bananas)
-Spraying plant hormones (not practical for watermelon, but is for grapes) |
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Term
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Definition
-Originated in Western Asia
-highly adaptable (temperate, subtropical, tropical)
-Picked after they are ripe
-Can be preserved for a long time with good ventilation to remove a ripening hormone (ethylene gas) produced by apples |
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Term
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Definition
a) 10 million trees in production in 697 orchards
b) on averages NY produces 30 million bushels, 55% sold for fresh eating in NY and surrounding states
c) NY ranks second in the nation in production
d) 10,000 direct agricultural jobs, 7,500 indirect jobs (handling, distribution, marketing, shipping)
e) Value of the crop for 2008 was $300 million |
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Term
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Definition
| a) fat free b) one provides as much dietary fiber as a bowl of bran cereal; 1/5 of the recommended daily intake of fiber c) are loaded with pectin, a soluble fiber that aids digestion and my help reduce caner and heart disease d) provide boron, an essential trace element that helps harden bones |
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Term
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Definition
-Wine grapes
-Raisin (soft, sweet, seedless, dried in the field)
-Juice, jams, jellies |
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Term
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Definition
a) 1384 grape farms
b) grape sales $30 million
c) grape juice revenue $27 million
d) winery sales $420 million
e) 2/3 of NY grape harvest is of Concord grapes- most of which is used in the winery industry |
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Term
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Definition
-Tropical, monocot plant that looks like palm, but is not in the palm family
-perfect flower (male and female)
-Eggs are not fertilized, fruits are formed without fertilization
-I. Picked green and hard and may be treated with the ripening hormone (ethylene) before selling |
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Term
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Definition
- SE Asia, spread to Africa, Central and South America
-In the US, accustomed to only 1 variety chosen for its "harvestable, preservable, ripening-inducible" ability
-U.S. United Fruit Co. dominated the market for more than 50 years.
-Small Latin American nations which are called “banana republics” the setup was usually not good for the local economy |
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Term
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Definition
-Tropical, monocot plant in the palm family
-Male and female are in separate flowers on the same plant
-"Man's most useful plant" |
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Term
| Coconut: "Man's most useful plant" |
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Definition
a) Fiber- door and floor mats, hut roof, fuel
b) Shell- containers
c) Immature: liquid (coconut milk) for drinking |
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Term
| Coconut: "Man's most useful plant" |
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Definition
d) Mature: white solid (copra) for eating, oils, soap/detergent, coconut water has the same amount of electrolytes as blood
e) Leaves- clothing, hut roof
f) Stem- building materials, fuel |
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Term
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Definition
-Major starch source
-In some parts, they can be expensive
a) Seasonal
b) Perishable
c) Transportation is costly |
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Term
| Root Vegetables: Vegetables, Staple, Sweets |
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Definition
-Carrot, turnip
-Sweet potato, cassava
-Sugar beet |
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Term
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Definition
-Potato, yam, taro (stems modified for storage underground)
-Ginger (above ground storage organs) |
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Term
| Stem: Bulb, Stem, Auxilary bud |
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Definition
-Onion
-Asparagus, Sugar cane
-Brussel sprouts |
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Term
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Definition
-Lettuce, spinach, beet
-Celery |
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Term
| Flowers: Immature, Flower buds |
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Definition
-Artichokes
-Broccoli, cauliflower |
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Term
| Starchy Vegetables: Potato and Cassava |
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Definition
-have low contents of proteins in the storage organs and require little nitrogen fertilizer
-are not as dry or good fro storage as cereals and beans are
-can be left in the field un-harvested to guard against fire, typhoon, bandits, and soldiers |
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Term
| Potato and Cassava Reproduction |
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Definition
-asexual reproduction:
i. Potato “potato eyes”
ii. Cassava: stem cuttings |
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Term
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Definition
-Underground stems
-Native to highland regions of the Andes
-Hardy and mature in 90-120 days, several crops |
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Term
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Definition
-Yucca, manioc, manihot
-Native to New World
-Grows well in tropics
-Hardy and resistant to pests (due to cyanide)
-Cultivation requires little labor
-Ground to powder and added to food, tapioca, pudding, baby food |
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Term
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Definition
a) Flowers in temperate regions
b) Does not flower in tropical regions
c) Originated in eastern Asia and spread to Europe
d) 1400s: Italians established plantations on the islands off West Africa
e) 1500s: Portuguese, Spanish and British established plantations in Central America
i. needed slave workers
ii. initiated major slave trade from Africa |
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Term
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Definition
-Tropical, perennial grass
-grows 12-18 ft tall
-Harvested several times, new stems (tillers) grow from base and make new plants
-70% of the worlds sugar production (sucrose) |
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Term
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Definition
a) Crush to extract juice
b) Raw sugar → direct use, rum
c) White sugar
d) Sugar cane left over after sugar extraction can be fermented to make alcohol |
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Term
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Definition
-25% of sugar production
-Biennial, harvested in first year
-Originated in Mediterranean region
-1800's had 2% sugar, now it has 20% sugar |
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Term
| Methods of Genetic Engineering |
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Definition
a) Find a useful gene from any organism (plant 1)
b) Put the gene into an organism (plant 2)
c) Put the gene into the cells
d) The gene must be in chromosome and in the sex organs of the plant to be heritable
e) Regenerate the cells into a whole plant (plant 3 GMO) |
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Term
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Definition
-Herbicide resistant- soybeans: round-up ready (used in ~75% GM crops)
-Pest-resistant- BT corn (used in ~20%
-Cold/salt/drought tolerant |
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Term
| Phytoremediation and Molecular farming |
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Definition
-Using plants to extract poison from the soil
-Better nutrition, pharmaceuticals, antibodies, "golden rice' |
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Term
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Definition
Transgenic Area
World US
-Soybean 50 90
-Corn 25 70
-Cotton 20 50
-Canola 8 |
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Term
| Regulations on GMO Foods: EPA, USDA, FDA |
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Definition
-Evaluates GM plants for environmental safety
-Evaluates whether the plant is safe to grow
-Evaluates whether the plant is safe to eat |
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Term
| Labeling GMO Foods: Agribusiness, Consumer interests groups |
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Definition
-Should be voluntary and influenced by the demands of the market
-Want it to be mandatory to label, consumer’s rights, agribusiness unreliable |
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Term
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Definition
a) Upsetting the environment too fast and too harsh
b) Harmful to other organisms
c) Gene transfer to non-targeted species (e.g. Non-GM crops, weeds)
d) Reducing the effectiveness of herbicides and existing pest control methods |
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Term
| Criticism of GMO Foods: Health, Economy |
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Definition
-Allergens, unknown effect on human health
-Farming controlled by large agribusiness (e.g. sale of herbicides and GM seeds)
-Hurting the great majority of peasants (holding small farms and less educated) in developing countries |
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Term
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Definition
a) Help farmers and consumers on a long-term basis
b) Provide safe food products under existing government regulations
c) Harm the environment/ ecosystem (e.g. herbicide or pest resistant genes getting into non-GM crops and weeds)
d) Hurt small farmers in rural areas in developing countries (being out competed) |
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Term
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Definition
- For children, a lack of vitamin A causes severe visual impairments and blindness and significantly increases the risk of severe illness, and death, from common infections such as diarrhea and measles
-Due to VAD causing blindness in children a team of scientists DONATED their time and the materials to make a FREE GMO rice crop that produces extra Vitamin A
-The rice is golden in color due to the extra carotene present in the grain |
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Term
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Definition
- Is opposed by many environmental groups including Greenpeace, mainly because it is a GMO
-Is not widely used partly due to mistrust of the US and GMO’s but also due to lack of familiarity with that rice variety |
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Term
| Other forms of sugar: Agave, Honey |
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Definition
-Manufacturers use different types of sweeteners so they can conceal how much sugar is in the product
-Made from the core of the agave plant, mostly fructose with glucose
-from flower nectars, mixture of glucose and sucrose, a "natural" manufactured product |
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Term
| Forms of Sugar: Maple Syrup, Truvia |
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Definition
-From maple tree sap
a) in earl spring, starch reserves in tree trunk are converted to sugar to support new growth of the tree before it can make leaves for photosynthesis
-made from the stevia plant
a) rebiana gives the plant its sweetness, leaves = 30-40x more sweet, extracts up to 300x sweeter
b) not a sugar chemically |
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Term
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Definition
-w/o the use of conventional pesticides
-w/o artificial fertilizers or sewage sludge
-animals reared w/o the routine use of antibiotics and w/o of growth hormones |
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Term
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Definition
-Food produced without ionizing radiation
-without the use of a wide range of food additives
-no GMO's
-Accounts for 3-4% of total food sales
-maintains strict physical separation of organic products from non-certified ones |
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Term
| National Organic Program (NOP) |
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Definition
-the federal regulatory framework governing organic food
-covers fresh and processed agriculture food products, including crops and livestock
-use farmland that has been free from chemicals for 3 or more years |
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Term
| Three levels of Organic: "100% Organic" |
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Definition
-Products made entirely with certified organic ingredients and methods
-Can use the seal |
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Term
| Three levels of Organics: "Organic" |
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Definition
-Products with 95% of organic ingredients
-Can use the seal |
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Term
| Three levels of Organics: "Made with organic ingredients" |
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Definition
-minimum of 70% organic ingredients
-can't use seal |
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Term
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Definition
-cost 3-5 more than uncertified seeds
-only handful of varieties of crops available
-strict certification favors large scale production |
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Term
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Definition
-Organic food is elitist
-Food safety
-Organic food has "sold out"
-Sustainability: Pesticide use: it is a common misconception that organic agriculture does not use pesticides |
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Term
| Claimed Beliefs of Organic Food for the Environment |
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Definition
-does not put synthetic pesticides/herbicides out (can harm local wildlife)
-better at sustaining diverse ecosystems than conventional farms
-uses less energy and produces less waste such as packaging materials for chemicals |
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Term
| Claimed Beliefs: For Producers |
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Definition
| -Less pesticide exposure for farm workers |
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Term
| Claimed Beliefs: For Consumers |
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Definition
| -Less pesticide exposer to consumers, we get a lot from our diets |
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