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| pioneers monism (600 B.C.) now naturalistic causes rather than supernatural causes explain events (natural disasters) Fundamental substance is physis (water) |
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| fundamental substance is “apeiron” (boundless, limitless, indeterminate) |
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| fundamental substance is air (also believed in water, fire, earth); everything that holds shape is earth; things held in container but not outside is water; things held in container but not if there is no lid is gas; everything else is fire; believed we live on cushion of air that stabilizes the earth and stars are like leaves (airy rarefactions that issue up from earth) |
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| logos = principle of creation = fire; everything is in flux and is changing from one moment to the next; everything is becoming; empiricism |
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1st arch-rationalist (ultimate monist); world is in a constant state of being; denies the reality of change.
opposed to Heraclitus, the only thing you get out of the ‘recipe’ is being.
Spherical earth, morning/evening star same, phases of the moon (he got all right |
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| created 40 paradoxes - anti-motion, anti-change ideals, drove people that believed in change crazy. |
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| The first pluralist. Not a monist. See question 4. Extramission. The way we see the world is that there is some sort of ray of light that comes from our eye and interacts with the light from other objects. |
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| He says there is indefinite number (more than we know) of fundamental substances. In the smallest bit of everything is a trace of everything else. You pick up a grain of sand and will be mostly rock but there is going to be a trace of everything else (water, air, fire, grass, etc.). Empiricist. Believes earth is a disk. Tremendous winds at the end of the disk. Says that stars are physical stuff. Predicted that rocks fly out of the sky—became popular! School of thought that came up was the Atomists. |
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| People who take up this question: suppose we have an infinitely sharp knife and we take a board and we begin to cut the board into smaller and smaller pieces. And we can apply as much pressure on that board as we wish. Will that process go on forever or will it stop at some point? We would come to something called an atom (something indivisible). That is their position. They start thinking—“if there are just atoms in the universe there would be a state of gridlock in the universe. They don’t want to believe that (as Parmendies said there was). You have to put space between the atoms so as to allow them to move. If everything is atoms then everything is jam-packed together. So they say |
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| 500 B.C. Pythagoras. Say that God is a mathematician. Fundamental reality is mathematical. If you can reduce the physical world down to its smallest parts you will find ratios, proportions (mathematical properties). They wore white clothes and had religious taboos. Put a pebble in the sand and look at it—this is unity. Two pebbles in the sand—first plural number. Three pebbles in the sand—constructed in an equilateral triangle (first triangular number). Four pebbles in the sand—square. Five pebbles in the sand—like a dice (five dots). Universe constructed in the most aesthetic, pretty way. Things tend to come in two categories—male and female. Math reveals two categories—odd and even numbers. They want to know if odd numbers are male or female. Use math to figure it out. Does male or female dominate? Use math. An odd plus an even is an odd—male dominates? Pyramid of dots. Process that geometry god went through to create the universe. He creates a point universe (starting at the top). 1st line = point universe. 2nd line – linear. Planear = 3rd line. 4th line = 3 dimensional. Tetrahedron. Tetrachtys. Another idea we associate with the Path. Is that they are the first people to discover that music is defined by mathematical principles. Beauty is reflective of truth. If it sounds good that is indication that it has cosmological significance. Second way of looking at the tetrachts is in musical terms. ½, 2/3, ¾. Octets, blah blah. Babylonians figured out the pathegorean theorem before these guys. Deductively figure out the theory. Difference between deduction and induction. |
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| Doesn’t really worry about science issues. He worries about ethical stuff. Taught Plato. |
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| skepticism - nitpickers. Begot Relationism - Different strokes for different folks. Begot Nihilism - nothing matters |
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| Taught Alexander the Great, although Alexander didn’t really listen |
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| involved in the second punic war. Invents a lot of war technology. Very practical; his inventions actually worked and were used. Had a price put on his head by the Romans. He liked big numbers. Gives correct explanation of round earth and phases of the moon. Gives identity of evening and morning stars. |
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Resignation and equanimity
Confirm your desires to what happens, not to what you wish you would happen
Or, our desires to the Universe’s desires
Emotional stability in the face of changes of fortune, imperturbability
Taken as a whole, the universe is perfect and harmonious
if our view is restricted so we don’t see the big picture, we begin to see imperfections (i.e. the parts aren’t perfect, but the whole is)
we can only see the perfection in the world if we see the big picture
so, your life at the moment may seem bad, but it might be part of somebody else’s happiness (i.e. it contributes to the perfection of the world)
one only rises if somebody else’s fall
opposed to self-pity (just feeds on itself)
we should be content with who we really are
“Man is disturbed not by things, but by the views he takes of them” |
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Maximize pleasure, minimize pain
Two Key words: Tranquility and repose
Natural necessary needs: food, drink, sleep. Indulge these in moderation
Natural unnecessary need: sex. Avoid this
Atomist view, only atoms live forever |
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| See PowerPoint. Greek astronomer. He comes up with program. You reproduce the non-circular motions of the planet. Thereby reserve the Platonic principle of nothing but circles int he heavens. |
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| relies on data; viewpoint that things that are real are provable through observable data and experiments |
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Developed naturalistic explanation of disease - not demons
Thoughts, ideas, & feelings originate in the brain
Formalizing medicinal practice [Hippocratic Oath to eliminate quacks]
Developed ecological / holistic approach to medicine |
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| Discuss the philosophical and cosmological ideas of the pre-socratic thinkers. |
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| 2. Discuss Plato’s cosmology in detail and show how he incorporated the thinking of his predecessors into a grand synthesis. |
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| Parmedades is more right than………….Plato would say that each of us are in a cave (just like the allegory). Because of our ignorance we think we are enlightened but we are really not. The things that we perceive are really just shadows. Socrates is the guy that comes down and releases the guy in chains. Cave is the world of Heraclitus. Outside is the world of Parmenides (the world being, perfection, a world of static being, immaterial world). The cave is the world of becoming (imperfection, physical). The cave is where most people are. There has to be a way to get from the cave to the outside. Plato says he has the formula. “If you are willing to attend my academy.” Philosophy (the love of wisdom) will get you out of the cave. For example, somewhere out there in the realm of real things is one (and only one) perfect car, of which the cars we might be lucky enough to have are only crude imitations (which you may have already suspected). By contemplating the Form of the perfect car, we can see the car with perfect clarity and not just a bunch of metal. We would, then, be limited to driving the idea of a car down the idea of a freeway, but that was the point anyway. Plato has a low opinion of physical matter. Pythagoras—Plato believed that math was the way to understand things, one of the ways that we can get from the cave to the outside. Very persuaded by Parmenides. Atomist cause he believes in atoms—but not physical atoms—he believes in mathematical atoms. 5 atoms. 5 platonic solids. 3 dimensional figures. Heraclitus. Debt to Empedocles b/c he borrows the idea of earth, air, fire, and water. He pairs those elements with four of the five platonic solids. If you take fire and break it down it will be tetrahedron (one of the platonic solids. Earth = cube. Air = octahedron. Water = icosahedron. 12 sides of dodecahedron correlate with 12 constellations (astrology). Also influenced by Anaxagoras. Principle of intelligence Nous (mind, intelligence). There is some sort of cosmic intelligence that governs the cosmos. Cosmos connotes beauty, order, harmony. |
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| 3. Discuss Aristotle’s cosmology in detail, not omitting his explanations of change, causality (4 causes), and motion. |
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| Spherical because nothing exists outside the cosmos; as it revolves, therefore, it cannot move into a place it does not already occupy. Only a sphere can satisfy this requirement. Eternal b/c spheres and circular orbits are completed figures. To question what caused the beginning leads to an infinite regress of beginnings, best left alone. Circles are symbolic of eternal. The universe has two parts: 1. Sublunar, consisting of earth, air, fire, and water, and 2. Supralunar, consisting of ether. Moon is not made of earth, air, fire, and water. It is made of ether—incorruptible. No ether in this world. Earth possesses a lot of gravitas. Water does not possess so much gravitas, so it gets closer to the earth, but earth gets closer to the center of the earth. Levitas is what distinguishes air and fire. Their natural tendency is to move up, away from the earth. (marker falling). The material to make the object originated from the earth. The object has a sense of where it is in the cosmos. When it is lifted from the earth it feels unnatural, like it is not at home. When you drop it it takes the easiest route back home—down to earth. Natural motion (always explained in terms of natural place). When you throw it you put it in unnatural motion b/c you are forcing it to deviate from its inclination to fall straight to earth. Eventually the unnatural motion will run out and the natural motion will take over. |
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| 4. Discuss Plato’s (and Empedocles’) theory of vision and indicate how it differs from the modern view. |
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| Plato gives it the best expression. Inner light and outer light, owing to their congeniality, intermingle, and when that stream hits an object, the impact produces the bloom of intelligent vision that occurs. Intramission theory is that there is only one light—light from the world and hits the rods and cones in the eyes. |
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| 5. Explain the Hippocratic approach to medicine and healing. |
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| Hippocrates lived at about the time of Socrates and Plato, around 400 BC. He developed naturalistic (rather than supernaturalistic or god-related) explanations of disease. Proposed (the first to do so) that thoughts, ideas, and feelings originate in the head rather than the heart. Formalized medical practice so as to eliminate charlatans and quacks. Developed an ecological or holistic approach to medicine. Treat the whole body and the parts thereof will remain or become healthy. He emphasized good diet, rest, fresh air, and exercise. |
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| 6. Locate Alexander the Great in space and time and discuss his life and accomplishments. Who did he apparently believe he was, what did he try to do, and to what extent did he accomplish his goals? |
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| Wanted to create a world empire. Aristotle argued against it. He believed he was inspired by God. Aristotle was a fan of democracy. See PowerPoint. He tried to conquer the whole world. He got to present-day Pakistan. He is trying to impose Greek culture on the world. He feels like that is the only true culture. Mutiny against him. |
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| 7. Who were the Sophists and how did they approach philosophy? What arguments did they bring against people like Socrates? |
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| See Alexander presentation. Skepticism. We can’t know what justice is. The mind is too weak to really know. Skepticism à relativism. Relativism à nihilism (nothing matters). If there is no absolute to human existence then nothing really matters. There is no truth that gives us standard, it really doesn’t matter if we live or die. Rhetoric. Since truth or wisdom is beyond our reach (skepticism), cultivate the appearance and reputation of wisdom. Why? People like Socrates. He knows what justice and beauty are. Socrates is supposedly the one who made it out of the cave, but they think he is a pretender. They say he knows he didn’t make it out of the cave. Maybe Socrates is the ultimate Sophist! |
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| 8. Talk about the rise of democracy in Greece. What circumstances and Greek attitudes seem to have engendered it? How is the concept of the city-state (polis) critical to the emergence of democracy? Compare the democracy of Athens with modern American democracy. Finally, how did democratic ideas and ideals affect developments in other (non-political) areas of Greek life? |
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| Democracy in 600BC. Democracy counterfeits—majority rule, voting, elected representatives. At the time of his death Alexander’s empire is divided to his generals in four ways. The Greeks have very human-like traits. They distance themselves from the thought that we need a king or queen that is a representative of god. They say, in a democratic form collection wisdom is better than any one person’s intellect. Make better decisions that way. It is a very naturalistic attitude. The concept of city-state is not too critical to the emergence of democracy. Wants smaller democracy so you can hammer out the problems together (verify). Exclude women and slaves from the voting process (comparing with modern democracy). Democratic freedoms and discussions can lead into discussions and freedoms regarding philosophy. Also, civic service was randomly determined; lots were drawn and everyone had an equal chance of being “drafted.” |
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| 9. When Paul went to Athens to preach the gospel, he contended with Stoics and Epicureans, some of whom called him a “babbler” (Acts 17:18). Who were these people, what was their cosmological outlook, and what was their recipe for happiness or contentment? |
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| He went to Athens. It seems like he wasn’t very successful. He never went back as far as we know. On Mars Hill. Paul is interesting to them because he had a new point of view. They say life is good! Maximize pleasure, minimize pain. How do you achieve happiness as a little fish in a big pond? Maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain is the formula to happiness! Natural necessary needs: food, drink, sleep. Indulge these in moderation. Natural unnecessary need: sex. Avoid this. |
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| 10. Keying off of Plato’s and Aristotle’s views, discuss Greek astronomy. What disagreements arose between theory and observation and how did Ptolemy resolve those disagreements? |
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| Be familiar with handout on Aristotle and his cosmology (on Blackboard). Big problem of retrograde motion of the heavens. Ptolemy says he can save the theory using math. non-circular path of the planets (retrograde motion).. Confusing and (as it would later be proven) wrong, but it “save[d] the phenomena” |
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| 11. Ancient Greece is often identified as the fountainhead of Western culture. What exactly are Greece's gifts to Western culture? |
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| If you know the first ten questions than you know this one (professor says). |
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| prophet of Islam, lived around 570 - 632 AD, born in mecca and received revelation from the angel gabriel and chosen as prophet. Preached → persecution → fled to medina (622, “the flight”) → came back and conquered mecca |
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| 15% of Muslim world. one of the Muslim groups. The caliph (Successor) of Muhammad has to be blood related. |
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| 85% of Muslim world. one of the Muslim groups. The caliph (Successor) of Muhammad does not have to be a blood relative. |
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| Month of fasting occurring between sunrise and sunset. |
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| incarnation = God became flesh; Inlibration = God became a book |
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| Mosque in Jerusalem. Rests up on the temple mount the place where Mohammad was taken into heaven on white horse. |
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| Meteorite in mecca where god put there. |
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| 1. Rehearse the beginnings of Islam and explain the five pillars of Islam. |
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Muhammad AD 622
5 pillars of Islam
Prayer -prayer 5 times a day, rug
Alms- give 2.5% to poor
Ramadan - Fasting
Pilgrimage - to mecca the holy land. Holliness index: 1’st mecca, 2nd medina, 3rd Jerusalem
Ra’aba - Declaration of belief.
Muhammad. They say there is only one being in the universe that is worth worshipping and it Is Allah.
There is a battle and Muhammad’s followers flea and get more followers and come back to Mecca and defeat them to take over the city.
AD 622 is the date of the flight to Medina. This is the zero point like Christ's birth is the zero point in our calendar. |
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| 4. Talk about the Christian crusades by explaining what motivated them, how well they succeeded, and what their consequences were. |
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Crusades
A bloody affair! No distinction between men, women, or children
Reconquest of Spain
750 → mostly under control of the Muslims. After 800 the Christians begin to gain control (this happens before the first crusade, but it is accelerated when the crusades are launched
Why the Crusades?
To allow free passage for Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem and to take the Holy Land from Muslin “infidels.”
Other reasons include: Expansionism driven by economic prosperity, population increase, military adventurism. Also, to unite the warring factions of Western Europe.
God, Gold, Glory - some went solely to serve God, others went to acquire riches abroad (spices, gold, jewels) and others simply went to glorify themselves in combat.
Christians never truly succeed in taking over the Holy Land
The Crusades:the results
Spices and perfumes - soldiers brought these back and people desired them - initiated trade
Greek and Arabic texts - brought back to homeland for analysis
Dress rehearsal for the Age of Exploration - navigational advancements
Longstanding hostilities between Jews, Muslims and Christians |
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