Term
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Definition
| most basic unit of the physical world |
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Term
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Definition
combination of individual atoms
-can be made of the same or different elements |
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Term
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Definition
| molecule containing different elements |
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Term
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Definition
| molecules/atoms interacting in a reaction |
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Term
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Definition
results of the interactions
-right side of arrow |
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Term
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Definition
molecules and compounds containing carbon
-Exception: Carbon dioxide isn't organic |
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Term
|
Definition
molecules and compounds without carbon
-Exception: Carbon dioxide is inorganic |
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Term
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Definition
| strings of repeated units |
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Term
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Definition
| individual units making up polymers |
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Term
|
Definition
monomer of proteins
-20 different types
-all have basic backbone with R variable |
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Term
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Definition
| bond formed btwn amino acids |
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Term
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Definition
removal of a water molecule to form a bond between two compounds/molecules
-Eg. formation of peptide bonds
-COOH + -NH2 - H2O => Peptide bond |
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Term
|
Definition
breaking up a bond by adding a water molecule
-Eg. removal of peptide bonds |
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Term
|
Definition
| polymer formed by amino acids |
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Term
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Definition
another word for protein
-Poly = many
"Many" peptide bonds |
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Term
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Definition
| monomer for a carbohydrate |
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Term
|
Definition
carbohydrates made of one saccharide
-ratio of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen = 1:2:1
-Glucose & fructose
-same chemical formula
-different structure |
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Term
|
Definition
-macromolecule & biomolecule
-made of only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
-used for quick energy or stored for later use |
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Term
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Definition
monosaccharide
-C6 H12 O6
-Structure: double bond oxygen on top molecule |
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Term
|
Definition
monosaccharide
-C6 H12 O6
-Structure: double bond oxygen on second carbon from the top |
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Term
|
Definition
made of two monosaccharides
-maltose and sucrose |
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Term
|
Definition
Glucose + glucose
-Formula: C12 H 22 O11 |
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Term
|
Definition
-"table sugar"
-Glucose + Fructose
-Formula C12 H22 O11 |
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Term
|
Definition
carbohydrate made up of many saccharides
-glycogen, starch, cellulose (three main) |
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Term
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Definition
polysaccharide
form in which animals store glucose |
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Term
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Definition
polysaccharide
form in which plants store glucose |
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Term
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Definition
polysaccharide
forms plants' cell walls |
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Term
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Definition
monomer for lipids
made of just carbon and hydrogen |
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Term
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Definition
"water hating"
also : nonpolar |
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Term
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Definition
"water loving"
also : polar |
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Term
|
Definition
fats, oils, lard, etc.
made of hydrocarbons
three main types:
-trigylcerides
-phospholipids
-cholesterol |
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Term
|
Definition
made of three fatty acids and one glycerol molecule
-form in which human body stores fat |
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Term
|
Definition
made of one glycerol molecule, two fatty acids, and one phosphate group
-polar on one end (phosphate) and nonpolar on the other (fatty acids)
-makes lipid bilayers |
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Term
|
Definition
double layer of phospholipids
-fatty acids on inside, phosphate heads on outside
-make cell membranes |
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Term
|
Definition
-made of long hydrocarbons in rings
-in only animal cells
-steroid hormones (estrogen, testosterone) derive from cholesterol
-good (HDL) and bad (LDL) cholesterol |
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Term
|
Definition
acidic macromolecules found in the nucleus
-contain all genetic information
-DNA and RNA
-made of nucleotides |
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Term
|
Definition
monomer of nucleic acids (polynucleotides)
-made of a phosphate and ribose sugar backbone, and nitrogen base |
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Term
|
Definition
DeoxyriboNucleic Acid
-four bases: adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine
-double heix
-deoxyribose sugar |
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Term
|
Definition
ladderlike structure that twists onto itself
-structure of DNA (discovered by Francis Crick and James Watson) |
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Term
|
Definition
DNA:
-adenine : thymine (2 h-bonds)
-guanine : cytosine (3 h-bonds)
RNA:
-same except replace "thymine" with "uracil" |
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Term
|
Definition
| weak bond formed by hydrogen atoms |
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Term
|
Definition
RiboNucleic Acid
-single stranded
-ribose sugar
-uracil base instead of thymine |
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Term
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Definition
| organism made of one cell |
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Term
|
Definition
| organism made of many cells |
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Term
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Definition
| rigid structure before cell membrane in plants, fungi, and bacteria |
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Term
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Definition
outer lipid bilayer of cells
-selectively permeable to substances |
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Term
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Definition
| jelly-like liquid that contains the cell's organelles |
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Term
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Definition
| "organs" of eukaryotic cell |
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Term
|
Definition
control center of cell
-contains genetic information (DNA)
-double membraned |
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Term
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Definition
strands of DNA that contain genetic information
-inside nucleus |
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Term
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Definition
| polysaccharide that makes up plant cell walls |
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Term
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Definition
| proteins and sugars that make up bacteria cell walls |
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Term
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Definition
| polysaccharide similar to cellulose that makes up fungi cell walls |
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Term
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Definition
movement of a substance from higher to lower concentration, down a concentration gradient, across a cell membrane
-oxygen, carbon dioxide, cholesterol |
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Term
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Definition
| simple diffusion for hydrophilic particles (ions, glucose, water) |
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Term
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Definition
| transport of substances across the cell membrane against their concentration gradient by using energy |
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Term
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Definition
| transport of large particles by using vesicles (endo & exo cytosis) |
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Term
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Definition
| vesicle taking in a particle by engulfing it |
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Term
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Definition
| vesicle ejecting a particle by fusing with the cell membrane |
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Term
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Definition
| pocket of a cell membrane (also created by the Golgi apparatus) |
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Term
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Definition
| movement of water down its concentration gradient |
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Term
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Definition
more concentrated solution
-causes cell to shrink |
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Term
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Definition
less concentrated solution
-causes cell to swell |
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Term
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Definition
same concentration as inside of cell
eg. human blood cells are isotonic in 0.9% sodium chloride solution |
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Term
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Definition
containing membrane bound organelles
-multicellular |
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Term
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Definition
no membrane bound organelles
-unicellular |
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Term
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Definition
| storage of wastes and materials |
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Term
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Definition
| sites of protein synthesis |
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Term
| smooth endoplasmic reticulum |
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Definition
| substance transport system by membranes and tubes |
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Term
| rough endoplasmic reticulum |
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Definition
| ER with ribosomes bound; membrane protein synthesis and protein secretion |
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Term
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Definition
| sorts and packages proteins secreted by RER and sends them around the cell |
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Term
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Definition
| functions in cellular respiration |
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Term
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Definition
| contain hydrolytic enzymes that digest foreign materials and old organelles |
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Term
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Definition
| make the spindle during mitotic division |
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Term
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Definition
small dense structure in nucleus
site of ribosome synthesis |
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Term
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Definition
| catalyst protein for cell reactions |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| where substrates bind on an enzyme |
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Term
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Definition
| reactant in enzyme-catalyzed reaction |
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Term
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Definition
dissolving of enzymes 3D shape
-can be by heat |
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Term
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Definition
| molecules that help enzymes catalyze reactions |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
(adenosine triphosphate)
molecular form of cellular energy |
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Term
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Definition
(adenosine diphosphate)
2 phosphate form of ATP (after breaking down third bond to release energy) |
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Term
|
Definition
| special molecules that store energy as electrons |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
splitting of a glucose molecule into 2 pyruvate molecules
-Net yield:
-2 ATP
-2 NADH
-2 Pyruvate
-occurs in cytoplasm
-anaerobic |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
| pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) |
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Definition
group of processes that prepare pyruvate to enter the Kreb's cycle
-CoA + 1 pyruvate + 1 NAD+ => CO2 + NADH + Acetyl CoA
-do twice (because of two pyruvates)
-aerobic
-occurs in mitochondria matrix |
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Term
|
Definition
-process that creates more electron carriers for ETC
-acetyl CoA is combined with oxaloacetic acid, forming citric acid
-citric acid is broken down by carbons (released as CO2) until forming oxaloacetic acid again
-Net yield: 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 ATP per acetyl CoA
-occurs in mitochondrial matrix
-aerobic |
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Term
|
Definition
-oxidizes electron carriers back to their "empty" state
-electron carriers NADH and FADH2 pass on their electrons to a series of special chain of carrier molecules in the inner mitochondrial membrane
-final electron acceptor is oxygen, which forms into a water molecule
-energy makes a H+ concentration in the intermembranal space |
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Term
| oxidative phosphorylation |
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Definition
-H+ atoms go down their concentration back into the matrix through the ATP synthase
-energy made from H+ cycling through the ATP synthase phosphorylates an ADP into ATP
-creates about 32 ATP molecules |
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Term
| aerobic cellular respiration |
|
Definition
series of steps that take place in a cell to produce ATP for cellular energy
-glycolysis -> pyruvate dehydrogenase complex -> kreb's cycle -> electron transport chain -> oxidative phosphorylation
-1 glucose molecule yields about 36 ATP molecules |
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Term
|
Definition
-anaerobic cellular respiration that takes place in absense of oxygen
- the 2 NADH from glycolysis are oxidized, and those electrons go to the pyruvate
-the compound pyruvate becomes is according to the organism:
-yeast: ethanol + CO2
-human muscle cells: lactic acid
-yield of only 2 ATP molecules
-more useful for unicellular organisms |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| a piece of DNA associated with various proteins |
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Term
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Definition
| to make an exact copy of itself (DNA) |
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Term
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Definition
| enzyme that lines up nucleotides to the parent DNA strand to make a daughter strand |
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Term
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Definition
| non-sex cell (not sperm or egg) |
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Term
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Definition
pair of similar, but not alike, chromosomes
-eg. 1A (mom) and 1B (dad) is a homologous pair |
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Term
|
Definition
| cell containing two sets of chromosomes (23 pairs of chromosomes in human somatic cells) |
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Term
|
Definition
process of creating a RNA strand from DNA
-done by RNA Polymerase
-only a portion of the DNA (gene) is transcribed |
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Term
|
Definition
| enzyme that transcribes a strand of RNA from a parent strand of DNA |
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Term
|
Definition
| portion of DNA that carries instructions for specific protein synthesis |
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Term
|
Definition
"Messenger" RNA
-carries the information for protein synthesis |
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Term
|
Definition
"Ribosomal" RNA
-interacts with cell's ribosomes to make them functional for protein synthesis |
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Term
|
Definition
"Transfer" RNA
-carries amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosomes during protein synthesis |
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Term
|
Definition
process of synthesizing protein from RNA strands
-done by ribosomes |
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Term
|
Definition
sequence of three nucleotides that correspond to one amino acid
-Start codon: AUG (methionine)
-Stop codons: UAA, UGA, UAG |
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Term
|
Definition
list of the 64 possible codons that can translate to 20 different amino acids
-3 codons (UAA, UAG, UGA) code for "stop", not proteins |
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Term
|
Definition
special region on a tRNA molecule that can base-pair to a complementary codon on an mRNA molecule
-Eg. Codon: AUG
Anticodon: UAC |
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Term
|
Definition
| site on a ribosome where growing Peptide is attached to ribosome |
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Term
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Definition
| site where the next Amino acid is added to the growing protein |
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Term
|
Definition
somatic cell division
-four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
-results in two identical diploid cells |
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Term
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Definition
time during which chromosomes replicate, and when cell carries out all of its normal processes
-"resting stage" |
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Term
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Definition
| individual chromosome of chromosome structure |
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Term
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Definition
| structure formed from two individual chromosomes joined together by a centromere (made during prophase) |
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Term
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Definition
| region that holds two chromatids together from the middle in a chromosome structure |
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Term
|
Definition
Step 1 of mitosis
-nuclear membrane dissolves
-formation of mitotic spindle
-chromosomes condense and become visible
-each chromosome has a homologous partner |
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Term
|
Definition
Step 2 of mitosis
-chromosomes line up at the equator of cell, pushed and pulled by spindles |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
Step 3 of mitosis
-centromere split into two
-spindles pull individual chromosomes (not called chromatids anymore) towards poles
-physical division of cell begins
-cell now technically has 92 chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| area where the cell begins to pinch inward in cell division |
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Term
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Definition
Step 4 of telophase
-chromosomes by the poles
-nuclear membranes form
-cytokinesis occurs, creating two daughter cells |
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Term
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Definition
| division of cell cytoplasm |
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Term
| one-gene-one-protein theory |
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Definition
| one gene corresponds to the production of one protein |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
cell that has two sets of chromosomes
2n |
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Term
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Definition
cell that has one set of chromosomes
n (gametes) |
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Term
|
Definition
gamete cell division
-Meiosis I and II
-results in 4 haploid cells |
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Term
|
Definition
ovum fertilized by sperm
-diploid |
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Term
|
Definition
first stage of meiosis
-has prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I and telophase I
-contains all the differences between mitosis and meiosis |
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Term
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Definition
pairing up of homologous chromosome structures
-two chromosome structures (4 chromatids)= tetrad |
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Term
|
Definition
Step 1 of Meiosis I
-where synapsis and crossing over occurs
-23 pairs of replicated chromosomes
-longest phase |
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Term
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Definition
when segments of homologous chromosomes are exchanged
also called "recombination" |
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Term
|
Definition
Step 2 of Meiosis I
-homologous pairs line up on equator
-spindle attach to pairs, not to chromatids |
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Term
|
Definition
Step 3 of Meiosis I
-centromeres DO NOT divide
-homologous pairs separate to poles |
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Term
|
Definition
Step 4 of Meiosis I
-similar to telophase of mitosis
-23 replicated chromosome structures
-two cells are considered haploid |
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Term
|
Definition
Second stage of meiosis
-similar to mitosis
-centromeres DO divide in anaphase II
-results in 4 haploid cells |
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Term
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Definition
| formation of sperm and ova |
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Term
|
Definition
formation of sperm cells
-meiosis
-from puberty to entire male lifetime |
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Term
|
Definition
initial diploid cell in spermatogenesis
-results in 4 mature sperm cells after division |
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Term
|
Definition
formation of female egg cells
-one primary oocyte results in one ovum
-from puberty to menopause, occurs once a month (ovulation) |
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Term
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Definition
female egg cells
singular : ovum |
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Term
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Definition
| initial cell in oogenesis |
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Term
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Definition
| daughter cells that disintegrate from meiotic division |
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Term
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Definition
| traits that an organism does and doesn't possess |
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Term
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Definition
| genes responsible for an organism's phenotype and their order |
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Term
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Definition
| gene that "dominates" over another allele of the gene |
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Term
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Definition
| gene that "recesses" to a dominant allele of the gene |
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Term
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Definition
gene that gives rise to more than one version of the same trait
-eg. eye color |
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Term
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Definition
when alleles are in agreement for a trait
-eg. BB or bb |
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Term
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Definition
when alleles are in disagreement for a trait
-eg. Bb |
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Term
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Definition
| when a heterozygote exhibits a mixture of the traits of both alleles |
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Term
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Definition
| four-chambered box used to show the probability of offspring receiving certain genotypes |
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Term
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Definition
pair of chromosomes that determine the gender of the organism
-Female : XX
-Male : XY |
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Term
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Definition
| all other chromosomes other than sex chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
basic principles of genetics, which were discovered by Gregor Mendel, father of genetics
-doesn't include sex-linked traits |
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Term
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Definition
| mating of two organisms that differ in 2 characteristics, instead of the usual one |
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Term
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Definition
| trait whose allele is carried on a sex chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| trait whose allele is carried on the X chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
blood clotting disorder
-X linked recessive trait |
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Term
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Definition
| females who are heterozygous for an X-linked recessive trait |
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Term
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Definition
| chart that shows the presentation of a particular phenotype in a given family, over several generations |
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Term
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Definition
| study of the allele frequency distribution and change as a result of migration, natural selection, genetic drift, or mutation |
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Term
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Definition
theory that states how life began under extreme conditions on Earth:
-intense climate
-atmosphere of hydrogen, ammonia, methane and water |
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Term
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Definition
| organism that has to consume its own food in various ways |
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Term
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Definition
| organism that can synthesize its own food |
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Term
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Definition
| organism that doesn't need oxygen to survive |
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Term
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Definition
| combination of the genes of all the individuals of a population |
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Term
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Definition
| the diverse sets of genes present in each person |
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Term
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Definition
| information that paleontologists have gathered and organized about past life |
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Term
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Definition
| when an error is made in DNA replication, which changes the genes and the proteins translated in a person |
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Term
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Definition
The better competitors are better at staying alive and have a better chance of reproducing.
-favorable genes are passed to offspring |
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Term
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Definition
| organism's ability to contribute to the next generation's gene pool by producing surviving offspring |
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Term
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Definition
| formation of a new species, by evolution (most common) or other means |
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Term
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Definition
| process in which two populations of the same species end up w/ different behaviors and traits (dif. species) |
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Term
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Definition
| similar structures in organisms that are from a common ancestor |
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Term
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Definition
| evolution that results in the production of similar traits and behaviors between two separate species |
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Term
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Definition
| similar adaptations that result from convergent evolution |
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Term
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Definition
| structures that become useless and unimportant in a species after evolution (eg. humans : appendix) |
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Term
| order of taxonomy arrangement |
|
Definition
| Domain -> Kingdom -> Phylum -> Class -> Order -> Family -> Genus -> Species |
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Term
|
Definition
| evolutionary relationships of organisms |
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Term
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Definition
| science of organism classification |
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Term
|
Definition
came up with binomial system of classification for organisms
"Genus species" |
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Term
|
Definition
made up of most prokaryotes
-lack nucleus and membrane bound organelles
-One kingdom: Eubacteria
-includes Cyanobacteria |
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Term
|
Definition
blue-green algae
can photosynthesize (chlorophyll) |
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Term
|
Definition
-also made of prokaryotes
-somewhat similar to eukaryotes
-extremely harsh environments |
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Term
|
Definition
| organisms that live in extremely harsh environments |
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Term
|
Definition
| lives in extremely salty environment |
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Term
|
Definition
| lives in extremely hot environment |
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Term
|
Definition
| extreme anaerobes that release methane gas as a waste product |
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Term
|
Definition
made up of eukaryotes
-four kingdoms: Protista, Plantae, Fungi, Animalia |
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Term
|
Definition
eukaryotes; contain organelles and nucleus
-mostly unicellular, but some are multicellular |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
unicellular
move by extensions called pseudopodia
found in soils and water environments |
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Term
|
Definition
animal parasites
both sexual and asexual life cycles |
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Term
|
Definition
unicellular organisms
use cilia for movement (paramecium) |
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Term
|
Definition
| overgrown amoeba w/ multiple nuclei |
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Term
|
Definition
| unicellular photosynthetic algae |
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Term
|
Definition
| unicellular organisms w/ unique glasslike walls |
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Term
|
Definition
seaweeds
most complex of plant protists
eg. giant kelp |
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Term
|
Definition
multicellular eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms
four divisions |
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Term
|
Definition
| word for "phylum" in kingdom Plantae |
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Term
|
Definition
plant that lacks in specific vascular tissue that transports water and other nutrients
-mosses liverworts, hornworts |
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Term
|
Definition
containing vascular tissue, xylem and phloem
-ferns, conifers and flowering plants |
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Term
|
Definition
making no seeds for carrying genes
-ferns (instead make spores) |
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Term
|
Definition
make seeds to transport genes
-gymnosperms and angiosperms |
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Term
|
Definition
nonflowering plant
-conifers
-mostly trees
-large seeds |
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Term
|
Definition
flowering plant
-produce flowers and pollen
-divided into monocots and dicots |
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Term
|
Definition
Flowering plant:
-single seed leaves (cotyledons)
-parallel veins in leaves
-flower parts in multiples of 3
-complex vascular tissue
-fibrous root system |
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Term
|
Definition
two cotyledons
netlike veins in leaves
flower parts in multiples of 4 or 5
ring vascular tissue
taproot system |
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Term
|
Definition
eukaryotic, almost all unicellular (yeast is an exception)
-absorptive feeders- take in nutrients to survive
decomposers |
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Term
|
Definition
eukaryotic
multicellular
heterotrophic
most diverse of six kingdoms |
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Term
|
Definition
sessile (nonmoving) animals
made of two layers of cells
water environment |
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Term
|
Definition
body walls of two layers of cells
-eg. jellyfish, hydra |
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Term
|
Definition
moderate cephalization (a head)
both non- and parasitic |
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Term
|
Definition
soft bodied w/ hard shells
1. foot for movement
2. visceral mass
3. mantle (secretes shell) |
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Term
|
Definition
segmented worms
closed circulation
excrete waste thru metanephrida
earthworms, leeches, etc. |
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Term
|
Definition
arthopods
nearly one million dif. species
jointed appendages, exoskeleton, segmented body
open circulation
eliminate waste thru Malpighian tubules |
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Term
|
Definition
"spiny skin"
slow moving w/ tube feet
sea urchins, sea stars, etc. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
hollow notochord
dorsal nerve cord
tail
6 classes: cartilige and bone fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals |
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interprets and detects information from surrounding environment
controls most body functions |
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| controls body functions through use of hormones |
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| transports materials throughout the body |
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| recaptures and filters fluid from the tissues and returns it to the bloodstream |
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| conducts gas exchange in body |
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| breaks down and absorbs nutrients from food for use in the body |
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| removes wastes from blood |
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| supports, protects, and allows the movement of the body |
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| protects body and regulates body temp. |
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| produces cells necessary to create offspring |
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extension from the cell body
eg. axon |
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| processes of a neuron that receive impulses |
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| process of a neuron that sends away impulses |
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| state when a neuron is resting |
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| resting membrane potential |
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where inside cell is more negative than outside
-usually about -70 mV |
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pump located on neurons
-3 sodium out and 2 potassium in
-establishes concentration gradients |
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| channels always open for their particular substance |
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| channels that open when the cell membrane reaches a certain voltage level |
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| level at which a voltage gated channel opens |
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| sodium voltage-gated channel |
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For sodium
Open at -50 mV
when they open, cell is depolarized and action potential starts |
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| potassium voltage-gated channel |
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For potassium
Open at around +35 mV
Repolarizes membrane back to resting value
Close at -90 mV |
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| when cell membrane depolarizes and sends an impulse down an axon |
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| when inside the cell is more positive than outside the cell |
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| when cell is returned to resting value |
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special cell that wraps a part of the axon
-all of the Schwann cells = myelin sheath |
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| spaces btwn Schwann cells |
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| when an impluse jumps from one node of Ranvier to another, making a faster conduction |
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| small moment that a neuron cannot gain an action potential |
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| special chemical used by neurons to transmit impulses across synapses |
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| junction between two neurons, or a neuron and an organ |
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type of neurotransmitter
used by the somatic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system |
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| small amount of space that exists in synapses |
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| when a cell considers the amounts of inhibitory and stimulated input and makes the decision for an action accordingly |
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brain and spinal cord
Brain:
-cerebrum : thought
-cerebellum : balance
-medulla : involuntary actions
-hypothalamus: body homeostasis
Spinal cord: reflexes |
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| peripheral nervous system |
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| all of the other nerves in the body besides the brain and spinal cord |
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| transmit sensory inputs from the body to the brain |
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| transmits impulse from the brain to the body for motor output |
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interprets information btwn sensory and motor neurons
in the brain |
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From PNS
voluntary system
skeletal muscle
uses acetyl choline |
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From PNS
involuntary system
sympathetic and parasympathetic |
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from autonomic
"Flight or fight" response
uses norepinephrine (linked to adrenaline) |
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from autonomic system
"rest and digest"
uses acetyl choline |
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| cluster of nerve cell bodies |
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use of solar energy to produce food (carbohydrates)
-done by producers |
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| outer cell layer of top and bottom of leaf |
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layer of wax on top of leaf
1. protects leaf from fungi
2. prevents water loss |
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| where most photosynthesis takes place |
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| pores for the intake of gases by the leaf |
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| cells that regulate openings of stomates |
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