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| same as maintained hypothesis |
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| same as maintained hypothesis |
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-designed to solve real-world problems
-hypothesis come from theory, previous research, and observations in the real world
Ex: (a neurologist who is searching for the orgins of Alzheimer's disease |
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| routinely gathered records of a society, community, or organization and may further supplement other qualitative methods. |
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theoretical- knowledge for knowledge's sake
-little emphasis on real world application
Ex: (a neurologist who studies the brain to learn about its general workings |
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| ways to study overt actions and observable, recordable reactions. |
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| each participant participates in one and only one group |
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| each participant participates in one and only one group |
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-Intensive study of particular individuals and their behaviors
-can be conducted for a group of individuals, such as an agency or institution
-Intensive observation of an individual's naturalistic behavior or set of behaviors
-often exploratory studies, learning about a behavior that little is know about it |
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-intensive study of particular individuals and their behaviors
-can be conducted for a group of individuals, such as an agency or institution
-intensive observation of an individual's naturalistic behavior or set of behaviors
-often exploratory studies, learning about a behavior that little is known about it |
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real life situations
advances a field's knowledge base
flexible |
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difficult to generalize
-too subjective
Costly
Time Consuming |
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| results agree with those of an established test |
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measures what it was designed to measure
Ex: if measuring height.... tape measure has high construct validity. A scale has low construct validity. |
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| does the measure include a representative sample of the behaviors that are relevant to the variable? |
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Hypothetically values can fall ANYWHERE along a continuum
-0,1,2.067,7.5 |
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Hypothetically values can fall ANYWHERE along a continuum
-0,1,2.067,7.5 |
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probability of choosing an individual is NOT known
-not all members of population are considered for participation
-Sample is made up from available individuals
-most common example is using student volunteers as subjects for research |
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examine relationships between dependent variables (measured variables)
NO MANIPULATION: goal of a correlation study is to determine if different behaviors are connected and occur together |
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| method for controlling order effects in a repeated measures design |
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| method for controlling order effects in a repeated measures design |
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| measured item (outcome behavior after experiencing independent variables.) |
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variable can take only 2 values
-yes or no; correct or incorrect; diseased or healthy |
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variable can take only 2 values
-yes or no; correct or incorrect; diseased or healthy |
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variable can only take on certain values across the range
-0,1,2,3 |
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variable can only take on certain values across the range
-0,1,2,3 |
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| does your measure mirror the behavior of people in naturalistic environments? |
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| examination of causal relationship between variables by manipulating conditions |
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| Experimental Research Design |
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| examination of causal relationship between variables by manipulating conditions |
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| Exploratory (Or pilot) Case Study |
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| condensed case before implementing a large scale investigation |
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| do your results generalize beyond your sample and research setting? |
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| External Validity Threats |
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Population Validity- how representative is the same of the population
Research Settings- what setting is the lab in? |
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variables besides the independent variable, that could affect the dependent variable
Nuisance Variables- increase validity within groups and make it harder to see effects
Confounding Variables- change the difference between groups, either increasing or decreasing treatment effect. |
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Does the measure appear to measure the variable of interest?
- a weak form of validity |
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Can conduct a naturalistic study or a field experiment
Field Experiment- manipulate variables in a natural setting |
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description- goal is to describe phenomena
explanation- goal is to explain behavior or mental process
prediction- goal is to predict a person's behavior or thoughts
control- goal is to influence behavior or mental process |
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| summary of how often different scores occur within a sample of scores. |
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| summary of how often different scores occur within a sample of scores. |
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| study of a phenomenon over time looking at old data |
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-tentative explanation for an observation, phenomena, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investiagtion
-testable prediction about the relationship between at least 2 events, characteristics, or variables |
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Principally descriptive studies
-utilizes one or two instances |
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Manipulated condition
-at least 2 levels |
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manipulated condition
-at least 2 levels |
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| you are trying to reach conclusions that extend beyond the immediate data alone |
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| you are trying to reach conclusions that extend beyond the immediate data alone |
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Temporal Sequencing
-causes precede effects
Covariation: changes in the cause correspond to changes in effects
(look at notes) |
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| degree to which a study provides causal information about behavior |
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| degree to which your study tests your hypothesis |
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| Internal Validity Threats |
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History- unanticipated event that affect the measured variable
Maturation- would natural development influence the associations?
Testing Effects- does actual participation in the study change behavior or responses?
Regression towards the mean- Extreme score on a questionnaire/task but regress toward their mean score at another testing session
Selection- are participants in your study somehow different than those who are not
Mortality-This error occurs if inferences are made on the basis of only those participants that have participated from the start to the end. |
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Equally spaced, numerical responses, values are not ratio relations
- no zero or absense |
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Equally spaced, numerical responses, values are not ratio relations
- no zero or absense |
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-affords greatest control over extraneous variables
-attempt to recreate the real world in the lab
-realism is an issue
Mundane Realism- physical
Experimental Realism- psychological |
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| array filled with n different symbols, each occurring exactly once in each row and exactly once in each column. |
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| array filled with n different symbols, each occurring exactly once in each row and exactly once in each column. |
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| researchers attempt to emulate some of the strengths of within subjects designs and between subjects designs. |
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| researchers attempt to emulate some of the strengths of within subjects designs and between subjects designs. |
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-Mathematical average of all scores in a distribution
-dependent on each score in a distribution
-most widely used
-can be wildly distorted by outliers |
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-Mathematical average of all scores in a distribution
-dependent on each score in a distribution
-most widely used
-can be wildly distorted by outliers |
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middle piece of data, when sorted from lowest to highest
-when even amount- the mathematical average of the two middle values
-every score plays a role
-relatively insensitive to outliers |
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middle piece of data, when sorted from lowest to highest
-when even amount- the mathematical average of the two middle values
-every score plays a role
-relatively insensitive to outliers |
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| most frequent piece of data |
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| most frequent piece of data |
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nonordered category responses
-what color eyes do yo have? |
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| opposite of the alternative hypothesis |
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| opposite of the alternative hypothesis |
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| Observation Data Collecting |
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| A method of data collection in which the situation of interest is watched and the relevant facts, actions and behaviors are recorded. |
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| observation can also have interviews |
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| used when you have a reason to believe the effects will be directional, and you DO NOT CARE if the effect is in the opposite direction |
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| used when you have a reason to believe the effects will be directional, and you DO NOT CARE if the effect is in the opposite direction |
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result of the process of operationalization and is used to define something (e.g. a variable, term, or object) in terms of a process (or set of validation tests) needed to determine its existence, duration, and quantity.
(look to class notes) |
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Ordered category responses
-(see notes for examples) |
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| measures of bodily responses, such as blood pressure or heart rate, used to determine changes in psychological state. |
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same result, different type of people
-different regions; socioeconomic background; education level; age |
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group of interest in the study
-includes all potential participants |
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include a full report of a research study, including methodological details
-Description of participants, procedures, and statistics |
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-participants grouped based on characteristics they already have
-levels based on characteristics researcher unable to manipulate
-groups compared the same way as groups that are randomly assigned
Ex: (gender, age, personality types, ethnicity) |
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increased sample size increases the likelihood it's representative
-NO guarantee |
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| highest score minus lowest score |
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| highest score minus lowest score |
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when your not measuring the true range of a variable b/c your measure has an artificial or lower point
Ceiling Effect- upper limit
Floor Effect- lower limit |
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when your not measuring the true range of a variable b/c your measure has an artificial or lower point
Ceiling Effect- upper limit
Floor Effect- lower limit |
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| equally spaced, numerical responses, ratio relations, is a zero or absense |
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| equally spaced, numerical responses, ratio relations, is a zero or absense |
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| when a statistic falls into the rejection region, the null hypothesis is rejected |
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| when a statistic falls into the rejection region, the null hypothesis is rejected |
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the degree to which the results of a study can be replicated
-requires strict definitions/ rules for classifying and scoring data |
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| a reliable measure produces similar results when repeated measurements are made under identical conditions |
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| participants with characteristics that closely match the characteristics of the whole population |
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subgroup chosen from population
-cant include ALL members |
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how many?
-includes enough respondents to ensure a valid survey and no more |
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| sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others |
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| statistical characteristics of a population are estimated from a subset, or sample, of that population. |
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Stratified Sampling- population divided into strata (segments/groups) based on a population characteristic
Cluster Sampling- cluster of population units are selected at random and then all or some randomly chosen units in the selected clusters are studied
(see notes for steps) |
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| summarizes information from a primary source |
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| person fills out a survey or questionnaire with or without the help of an investigator. |
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Same result occurs in other locations
-the more different settings with the same results, the stronger the external validity |
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randomly select a sample from population
-random digit dialing
reduces systematic bias
-does no guarantee a representative sample |
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-gold standard of sampling
designed to be more representative of the population where the sampling frame is stratified according to population variables |
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| list of questions asked to participants designed to extract specific information |
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-well established principle developed to explain phenomena
-repeated observation and testing
-describes scientific relationship & how variables interact
-often inferred from data
-all revisions are subjects to revision or replacement based on new research |
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| see if 2 means are different from eachother (different populations) or from the same population |
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| see if 2 means are different from eachother (different populations) or from the same population |
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the incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis
-saying that chocolate improves your mood when it doesnt |
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the incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis
-saying that chocolate improves your mood when it doesnt |
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accepting the null hypothesis when it's false
-saying that chocolate DOES NOT improve your mood when it does |
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accepting the null hypothesis when it's false
-saying that chocolate DOES NOT improve your mood when it does |
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| average of the squared difference of scores from the mean |
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| average of the squared difference of scores from the mean |
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| Volunteer bias can be defined as the bias that comes from the fact that a particular sample can contain only those participants who are actually willing to participate in the study or experiment |
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| an experiment in which the same group of subjects serves in more than one treatment |
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| an experiment in which the same group of subjects serves in more than one treatment |
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| other types of personalization besides name introduction would work |
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| other signs of liking the personalized service |
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