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| A philosophical movement that claimed that all knowledge came from experiences that can be tested against the experiences of others and not from more personal senses.Associated w/ quantitative research. |
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| focuses on hypothesis testing of existing theory.Searches for nature's laws thru observation and comparison with experiments that seek to explain phenomena thru cause and effect relationships. Greater objectivity= greater trust in study. |
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| Asserts that researchers can only approximate a unversal truth. They acknowledge that theories are meant to be tested for exceptions and disproven and that research should seek to disprove a phenomenon to strenghthen it. |
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| Associated with qualitative research/postmodern paradigms. Asserts that pure objectivity is unattainable due to different cultural identities and experiences.Re-introduces subjectivity.Reality should never be labeled as objective. |
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| Social justice and action oriented.Concerned with eliminating oppression and shifting power in society. |
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| Postmodern. Similar to critical theory.Seeks to dismantle the patriarchal structure, with the goal of empowerment and social action.Also explore the role of gender in counseling and research relationships. |
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Healthy children were intentionally inoculated, orally and by injection, with Hepatitis..Parents who wanted to admit their child to Willowbrook were required to sign consent form to allow their child to be injected with the hepatitis virus. They were not informed of the later risks of hepatitis (liver failure.) |
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Laud Humphreys researched the prevalence of male/male sexual activity in public restrooms.
Humphreys did not get his subjects’ consent, he tracked down names and addresses through license plate numbers, he interviewed the men in their homes in disguise and under false pretenses (MacDonald, 2007). |
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This report was created in response to the ethical issues that came out of the Tuskegee Study. This report aimed to expand regulations for the protection of human subjects.
Attempt to identify principles applicable to all human subjects research
•Respect for persons: respect autonomous choices; protect those lacking autonomy; obtain informed consent; extra protections for those who are not self-determining
•Beneficence: do not harm; maximize benefits, minimize harms; conduct risk/benefit assessment
•Justice: recruit subjects to distribute benefits and burdens evenly; don’t target the vulnerable for convenience |
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•Over 400 subjects; 200 controls
•Studied course of untreated syphilis
•Informed consent was deceptive and unduly influential
(offered high incentives, free medical care”)
•Penicillin withheld even after determined effective
•Secondary health problems not treated |
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Twenty-three German physicians and administrators were indicted for war crimes and crimes against humanity. They tried to convince the judges that those experiments had not crucially exceeded conventional standards for medical experimentation on human subjects. (Freyhofer & Lang, 2004).
Out of this trial came The Nuremberg Code which cites 10 research ethics principles for human experimentation. |
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The three fundamental aspects of informed consent are:
- Voluntariness
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Individuals’ decisions about participation in research should not be influenced by anyone involved in conducting the research: “...consent must be freely given or truly voluntary.” 1
- Comprehension
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Individuals must have the mental or decisional capacity to understand the information presented to them in order to make an informed decision about participation in research.
- Disclosure
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HHS regulations (45 CFR 46.116(a)) require that researchers disclose:
- The purpose of the study
- Any reasonably foreseeable risks to the individual
- Potential benefits to the individual or others
- Alternatives to the research protocol
- The extent of confidentiality protections for the individual
- Compensation in case of injury due to the protocol
May include money, other material compensation, such as a coupon or gift certificate, or other non-monetary rewards.
- Contact information for questions regarding the study, participants’ rights, and in case of injury
- The conditions of participation, including right to refuse or withdraw without penalty
This disclosure must be made in such a way that it provides a reasonable person the information she or he would need in order to make an informed decision.
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| CHARACTERISTICS OF CONSENT |
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-Should be ongoing
-Should be presented in language that is understandable to the subject
-Can be presented with brochures, oral or video presentations to complement information
-Can be waived for certain state program studies or if research could not be carried out w/o a waiver.Must be involve minimal risk to subjects (along w/ other requirements.
-Can be signed by legally authorized reps
-Children can provide assent, parents can provide permission |
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| Those believed to affect the behavior or status of another variable.Sometimes called the stimulus or predictor variable.Some are organismic-meaning they canot be directly manipulated-such as gender. |
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| Depend on the independant variable for their response. Also called outcome , criterion or response variables. (GPA, Retention) |
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| EXTRANEOUS OR CONFOUNDING VARIABLE |
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| Variable that contribute unwanted variance |
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| INTERNAL VALIDITY THREATS |
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Selection
History
Maturation
Mortality
Instrumentation
Testing
Location
Implementation
Experimental Bias
Statistical Regression |
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| EXTERNAL VALIDITY THREATS |
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REACTIVITY: Hawthorne effect(being watched), demand characteristics(reaction to expectancies), Pygmalion effect(reaction to experimenter bias), and evaluation apprehension.
Order effects-treatment effects derived from the order rather than the treatment itself
Treatment Interaction effects |
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| Researchers introduce treatments and observe to see if any changes occur. Can be used to make cause-effect determinations |
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| TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS |
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True experimental
Quasi-experimental
Single-case (single-subject) |
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| QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN |
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| Similar to true experimental but do not use random assignment as a means of control, thus limiting the ability to infer cause and effect. |
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| TYPES OF NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS |
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Descriptive
Survey
Correlational
Causal comparative
Meta-analysis (statistical analysis of several studies) |
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| OTHER DESIGNS: LONGITUDINAL |
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| Evaulate changes over an extended period of time. Can be a trend study-using different samples from a population whose members may change over time. A cohort study includes members of a populatoin whose members do not change over time. A panel study includes the same sample of individuals surveyed at different times. |
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| Compare groups of participants of different ages at the same point in time. Subject to cohort effects. |
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| CROSS SEQUENTIAL/COHORT SEQUENTIAL |
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| Combine cross sectional and longitudinal designs by assessing participants from two or more age groups at more than one point in time. |
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| CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE DESIGNS |
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| Used to determine the possible causes or the consequences of differences between groups of people or individuals (e.g. ethnicity, gender, race).Variables reflecting group difference are cannot be manipulated. |
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| Used to investigate the relationship between two or more variables w/o attempting to manipulate them. Purpose: to help explain human behaviors or predict likely outcomes. |
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| THINGS YOU WANT IN A DESIGN |
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¨Systematic variance
¨Larger sample size
¤Sample size rules of thumb
¨Use of matching
¨Repeated measures
¨Everyone received treatment/intervention
¨Double Blind Study |
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| THINGS TO MINIMIZE/CONTROL |
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¨Error Variance
¤Sampling error, measurement error, random events
¨Extraneous Variance
¤Extraneous/confounding variables |
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Test-Retest reliability (Assessing stability of scores over time)
Alternate form reliability (More than one form of a test)
Split-half reliability (Test split into halves)
Other internal consistency methods
Kuder-Richardson Reliability (KR20)
Cronbach alpha
Interscorer/Interrater reliability (asses the agreement of judges)
Intrarater reliability |
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| STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING |
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| Used when the researcher wants to ensure that certain characteristics of participants are reflected in the final sample in the same proportion that they occur in the population (WY) |
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| Requires researcher to (randomly or conveniently)select units (clusters) of participants (e.g. several classes of counseling students) and then either randomly select individual participants or select all participants from the cluster. |
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| Commonly used in ethnographic or other qualitative methodologies when the researcher is interested more in diverse data sources than generalizability of results.Subtypes include comprehensive, extreme-case and typical-case sampling. |
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| Developed to obtain a sample by locating one participant and then developing a referral network to locate other likely participants (e.g. successful criminals). |
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| Uses both randomization and stratification to minimize sampling bias. Frequently used in large-scale surveys in which initial stratified random samples of larger entities (e.g. states, counties) are followed by simple random samples of smaller entities. |
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Degree to which the instrument or assessment technique is related to the construct of interest
•Starts with operationalization of the construct |
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| CONSTRUCT VALIDITY SUBTYPES |
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Convergent validity – determine the relationship between two different instruments that measure the same construct
Divergent validity – determine the relationship between two different instruments that measure different constructs |
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| Obtained by administering the instrument and then allowing an elapsed time interval to pass for later comparison with the criterion scores (e.g. aptitiude test and end of semester gpa) |
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| Used to determine validity by comparing the instrument used in the study to another instrument or form of assessment presumed to measure the same variable. |
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| Requires administration of the instrument and criterion data at the same point in time (e.g. attitiude of students compared to teachers observations. A correlation coefficient often is used to determine if a relationship exists between the scores from the two instruments. |
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| When the correlation between X and Y exists solely because it is affected by a common cause, Z. |
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Everyone in the frame has an equal chance of being chosen to participate. Includes the following methods:
- Simple random sampling
- Systematic sampling (every nth person)
- Stratified sampling
- Cluster sampling
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- Convenience sampling
- Purposeful sampling
- Quota sampling (similar to cluster or stratified)
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N.O.I.R
- Nominal
- Ordinal
- Interval
- Ratio
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| Classify or categorize a client characteristic into non-ordered exhaustive and mutually exclusive categories. That is the categories cover all choices, cannot be ordered and do not overlap.Few mathmatical operations can be performed. (e.g. 1 for Female, 2 for Male, marital status, residence, etc. ) |
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| Categories fall in an ordered sequence. Allow individuals to be ranked, but the categories are not equal interval. Mathmatical operations should not but are often performed (e.g. class rank or winners of a race, Likert scales.). |
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| Have ordered response categories and the magnitude between each category is of an equal choice category. Do not have an absolute 0 so no absolute comparisons can be made.. (Examples- thermometers, most aptitude tests). |
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| Is ordered, equal interval and has an absolute zero point, Rarely used in counseling since few human characteristics can be totally depleted or absent. Examples include Kelvin scale, length, weight and frequency tally (e.g. # of times a behavior was observed).Used mostly for size, density, weight, frequency or speed. |
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