What do Percentiles represent?

What are the four types of measurement scales? 

-nominal(naming)

-ordinal(ranking)

-interval(equal intervals)

-ratio(true zero)

How can the four types of measurement scales be represented?

nominal/ordinal data-bar graphs shape not relevent

interval/ratio-frequency polygons

Is the sample standard deviation a good estimate of the population standard deviation? 

 Why do we use graphs?

to analyze and communicate information 

What do measures of central tendency and variability tell us about a distribution? 

 Central Tendency Is about the center of a distribution 

Variability- how spread the distribution is

balance scale-mean will be center

smallest absolute differences-median will be smallest

smallest squared differences-mean will be the smallest

What are the measures of central tendency?

measures- mean, median, mode

will impact the mean

positive skew=greater mean

negative skew=greater median

What are the properties of central tendency and variability measures? 

What are the measures of variability?

measures:

range, sum of squares, variance , standard deviation

How are each measures of variability calculated?  Need to know the formulas 

see notes

What types of are there Kurtosis? What each does and doesn’t mean with regard to central tendency and variability 

 Kurtosis measures how fat or thin the tails of a distribution are relative to a normal distribution. It is commonly defined as:

[image]

long tails are called leptokurtic;

short tails are called platykurtic.

Normal distributions have zero kurtosis.

What are Linear transformations? 

 identify and/or generate an example of linear transformations

one to one transformations

miles-kilometers

celsius to Fahrenheit

What types of relationships are between variables?

positive Linear-increase in the value of first variable accompained by increase value of the 2nd variable/

negative linear-increase in the value of the first variable accompained by a decrease value of 2nd variable\

No relationship-outcome when two variables are not related. —

Curvilinear -a relationship which increase in the values of the first varibale are accompanied by both increase and decrease in the vaule of the second variable. ∩

Identify the three validities that are in an experimental design?

Construct validity- adequacy of operational definition of variables

Internal validity- when we can identify causal relations

External validity-when the results can be generalized to other settings 

 What types of methods that are found in research? 

Experimental-to determine if variables are related, by manipulating the IV and control for the other variables by randomization or direct experiment control

Non-experimental-to determine whether variables are related to one another (correlational)

Quasi-experimental - approximates the control features of true experiment to infer that a given treatment did have its intended effects

 What  is Confounding/extraneous variable? How to control for it ?

What is the relationship between correlation and causality? 

correlation shows an effect

causal show that the cause always produces the effect

correlation≠causation

 Describe how descriptive statistics and inferential statistics differ from each other?

 Descriptive - Stating what is there, and makes precise statements about the data 

 Inferential - Generalizing about something , infer that the difference in teh sample reflects a true difference in the population

 describe population and sample.

population composed of all individuals of interest to the researcher. all men ages 65-85

sample-participants from a population. all men 65-85 who smoke that were apart of the study.

 What are probability sampling procedure? 

Stratified random sampling-population is divided into strata followed by random sampling for each strata.

simple random sampling -which each member of the population has an equal probility of being included in the sample

Random assignment -every other, either you are in or out

cluster-sampling in which clusters of individuals are identified

 What are the pros and cons for cross-sectional studies?

 Pros- easier to do, less expensive

Cons- often cannot identify causation  

What are the pros and cons of a longitudinal studies?

 Pros, can identify causation

Cons, difficult and expensive 

What does the design (or structure) of a study consists of ?

IV--levels of 

DV--how many, what type 

setting up to increase internal and external validity

 independent groups or btwn group 

Repeated measure or within group

 Define the types of measures: Self-report, Behavioral, and Physiological 

Self-report- can be used to measure many aspects of human behavior and thoughts

Behavioral- measures direct observations of behaviors

Physiological - measures are recording of reponses of the body

Describe the issues with the order effects of measurement when conducting a study.

Sensitivity- ability of a measure to detect differences btwn groups

Ceiling effect- failure of a measure to detect a difference b/c it was too easy

Floor effect- failure of a measure to detect a difference b/c it was too difficult

What insures a good study ?

Protocols:

-Written and Verbal your plan with adequate previous research

Pilot studies-trial run 

Manipulation checks- provides evidence for the construct validity

Debriefing-research to interact w/participant to discuss the study and make sure no harm was done 

 What is needed to set the stage?

need to turn a conceptual variable into a set of operations(instructions, events, stimuli) to present to the research participant, with the IV and DV introduced int a total experimental setting.

Materials: Notes, informed consent, explantion to the participant of study

Manipulations:

Straightforward-manipulation by presenting written, verbal or visual material to the participant.

Staged -to create some psychological state in participant, or to simulate some situation that occurs in the real world.

 Describe an Experimental design 

 Increases internal validity control for confounding variables so only difference between groups is due to IV

 Random assignment prevents any systematic differences between the groups 

can show causality

Types of testing: Post test (only test after manpulation)  , Pre test--post test( test before the manpulation and after), Mortality( drop out factor) 

 Describe an Independent group design 

Between group design: when participants are in ONLY one group or condition and should be identical except for the IV

 Describe a Repeated measure design?

The same individual will participate in both conditions

Easier to find an effect--reduce variability 

order effect can impact the outcome

How can different sources of data be collected in observational methods? 

Archival: Content analysis compiled info to answer research question 

Observational which include:

-Case studies provides description of individual ,

-Naturalistic field studies, discoveries can occur, researcher can lose objectivity

-Systematic laboratory work, can control situation more, compromises generalizability

Other concepts associated with archival and observation research  

 recording methods: Video, Taking notes, & Time stamp 

 Identify and describe the wording in a research survey?

Simplicity- easy to understand and respond to

 Double barreled question- avoid asking two things at once, do not use "and" "or"

Loaded question- written to lead ppl to respond in one way

Negative wording -avoid pharsing questions with negatives

respondent set- lots of question get bored and answer all either agree or disagree

Describe the different ways can adminster surveys to help conduct research?

questionnaires- administered by grp or individual, mail and internet surveys, and other technologies

 interviews -Face to face, telephone, focus groups,

interview bias- can arise from the fact that the interviewer is a human interacting with another human. 

Variables: Operational definition

Independent vs. dependent variables

Levels of independent variables, Placebo

Qualitative vs. quantitat

Discrete vs. continuous

Be able to identify different types of graphs and discuss when it is appropriate and/or inappropriate to use each 

        Qualitative (Based on frequency tables) Nominal/Ordinal

– Pie Chart  

– Bar charts

       • Quantitative Interval/Ratio

– Frequency polygon

– Line graph

– Stem and leaf

– Bar chart  

– Histograms

• Box plot

What is a Factorial designs? 

all levels of each IVs are combined w/all levels of the other IVs, helps with sepration of main effect and interaction w/ 2 or more IVs

 DV - interval/ratio

 IV- nominal/ordinal

example: does major predict GPA?

-IV major and level

-DV GPA

What is a Main effects in a factorial design? 

What is an Interactions in a factorial design?

the effect that IV has on the DV depends on the level of the other IV.

"it depends"

What is a Simple main effect (simple effect)? 

Describe a Mixed designs?

Mixed designs: usually has one of each: 

Within subject variable 

Between subject variable 

 DefineProgram Evaluation with regard to Importance and the Stages

research designed to evaluate progams to produce certain change in target population. Non-profit government based

-need to assess the program( what's specifically needed)

-assess the program theory( what we already know, what we need to know)

-process evaluation( is it being done correctly)

-outcome evaluation( are the goals being met)

efficiency assessment-( effectiveness worth the cost, where put $ to benefit)

 What is the Belmont  Report (1979) ?

Assessment of Risk  and Benefit

  Informed Consent

   Selection  of Subjects

belmont-ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research, it defines the principles and applications for ethical codes.

risk/benefits-maximize benefits/minimize possible harmful effects

informed consent-participants provided with all information that will influence the decision to participate.

selection of subjects- ant decision to include or exclude a particular group must be justified.

 define a Single subject design

 An  experimental  design in which   a   functional   relationship can   be   demonstrated   with   the   behavior  of  only   one  subject

Condition in effect prior to introduction of  the IV

What is  an A‐B notation system?

Single  introduction of  at   least  1   IV   on at   least   1   BL

Compare a Group vs. Single- ‐Subject Designs Basic features that are

  difference and how analysis is different

 Group Measurement Pre-treatment vs.Post-treatment

Single Subject measurement- Repeated, continuous measures of behavior 

Group Experimental Comparison- Between subject

Single Subject Experimental Comparison- Within subject 

Group Replication -Between subject

Single subject Replication-  Within subject 

Single Subject Data Analysis-  Visual analysis of graphical data 

GroupData Analysis-Statistical

– Duplication  of earlier conditions  in an experiment

convenience -haphazard sampling "take them where you can find  them"

quota-chooses a sample that reflects the numerical composition of various subgroup in the population 

 Describe the Ratings that are conducted in a survey: 

# of alternatives 5 to 7 usually best, Scales, Also: Graphic, semantic 

differential, non-verbal responses 

open endend

closed (force to choose)

Describe the Order effects. 

practice effect,improvement in performance as a result of repeated practice with a task

fatigue effect, is the deterioration in performance as participants become bored, tired or distracted

contrast effect, occurs when the response to the second condition in the experiment is altered b/c the 2 conditions are contrasted to one another. 

 Define the Format for a survey in a research study? 

Readability; Alignment, Spelling errors

Comprehension 

consistency

 A relationship in which changes in one variable (DV)are demonstrated to be the result (a function) of

 changes in another variable(IV)