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Definition
| bell shaped curve, represents how lots of variables in psychology are distributed |
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| 4 Common Characteristics of Normal Curves |
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Definition
1. Symmetrical about the midpoint of the distribution… the left half of the normal curve is exactly the same as the right half
2. Unimodal… normal curves have one hump right in the middle
3. Mean, median, and mode are all equal to each other
4. The tails of the normal curve are asymptotic to the x-axis… they get closer and closer to the X=axis but they never actually touch it |
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| The average distance of the scores from the mean |
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Definition
1. 68.26% of the scores fall between the mean and +/- standard deviations
2. 99.44% of the scores fall between the mean and +/- 2 standard deviations
3. 99.79% of the scores fall between the mean and +/- 3 standard deviations |
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Definition
| scores that are comparable because they are standardized in units of standard deviation |
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| the most frequently standard score z=x- X/s |
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| The mean of any set of z scores is always equal to _____. |
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Definition
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| the standard deviation of any set of z scores is always equal to ______. |
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| The distribution of ___-________ has the same shape as the distribution of raw scores from which they were derived |
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| the entire group of individuals in which you are interested in studying. |
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| a smaller group of individuals that is representative of the larger population |
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| a sample with the same characteristics as the population |
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| the likelihood of selecting any one member of the population is known |
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Definition
| the likelihood of selecting any one member from he population is not known |
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| Two General Sampling Techniques |
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Definition
| Probability sampling and nonprobability sampling |
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Definition
| the type of sampling used when the probability (or chance) of selecting any one member of the population is known |
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Definition
| The type of sampling used when the probability (or chance) of selecting any one member of the population is unknown |
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Definition
| A sampling procedure allowing for the equal and independent chance of participants’ being selected as part of the sample |
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Term
| 4 steps of random sampling |
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Definition
1. define the population of interest from which you want to select your sample
2. List all of the members of the population
3. Assign numbers to each member of the population
4. Select the sample size you want, using some random process |
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Term
| Stratified random sampling |
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Definition
– involves dividing your population into subgroups and then taking a simple random sample in each subgroup
• there will be a degree of representativeness in this sample |
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| Proportionate stratified random sampling |
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Definition
| a stratified random sampling procedure wherein participants in the sample are selected in proportion to how they are represented in the population |
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Definition
a random sampling procedure where increments determine who becomes part of the sample: for example every nth person is selected
a lot less tedious and a lot less random….although it is random but each member doesn’t have an equal chance of being selected |
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Term
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Definition
| a probability sampling procedure wherein units of participants are selected, rather than the participants themselves |
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| Nonprobability Sampling Strategies |
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Definition
| Convenience sampling, quota sampling, snowballing |
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Term
| Convenience Sampling (nonprobability) |
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Definition
| (aka haphazard or accidental sampling) – a nonprobability sampling procedure wherein the selected sample represents a captive audience (ex: students in an introductory psychology class)…. Easy but non representative |
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| Quota Sampling (nonprobability) |
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Definition
| - a nonprobability procedure similar to stratified random sampling in that a particular stratum is the focus; however, a specified number is set to be selected and once that number is met, no further selection occurs |
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| Snowballing (non-probability) |
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Definition
| - a nonprobability sampling procedure where a sample is required by a referral process among similar individuals. This one is not in the textbook. Ask people to mention the study to others |
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Definition
| the magnitude of the difference between the characteristics of the sample and the characteristics of the population from which is was selected |
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| Larger the sample, ______ the sampling error. |
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Definition
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Definition
| refers to how you go about doing your research …. 5th step in the research process. Depends on the question you are asking, the answers you are hoping to get. What are the goals of the research study? |
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| Descriptive research strategy |
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Definition
research that describes a phenomenon without attempting to determine what causes the phenomenon . Provide a snapshot of people’s thoughts, feelings or behaviours at a given point and place in time. This doesn’t answer the question “why?”.
• Surveys and interviews
• Observational research
• Case studies – in depth investigation of an individual |
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| Correlational Research study |
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Definition
| – a method of research used to determine relationships between two (or more) variables. They cannot determine causal relationships. |
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| Experimental Research strategy |
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Definition
research that examines cause and effect relationships between variables (aka manipulative research)
Four basic elements of an experiment
o Manipulation
o Measurement
o Control
o Comparison |
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| Quasi-experimental research strategy |
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Definition
| research that is done when groups are pre-assigned to “Treatments”, such as gender, social class, and race (aka post hoc research) |
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Term
| The validity of a research study is determined by ... |
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Definition
| the quality of the research process and the accuracy of the study’s results |
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Definition
| a research study has internal validity (or is internally valid) if it produces a single, unambiguous explanation for the results |
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Term
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Definition
| an unwanted variable, a variable whose influence is not being studied |
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Definition
| an uncontrolled extraneous variable |
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| Threats to internal validity |
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Definition
any factor that decreases the likelihood that the results of the experiment are caused by the manipulation of the independent variable.
– ex: columbine shootings, the students may have a different reaction… might be thinking about how bad bullying is and might be less accepting. This can affect your pre-test, and post test of a bullying program. You don’t know if the program is working or if the news story affects them |
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Definition
| uncontrolled events (or influence) on participants during the course of a study |
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Definition
| refers to internal changes within the participants that occur naturally over time during a study |
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Definition
| occur when participants are exposed to more than one treatment and their responses are affected by participation in an earlier treatment (includes practice and fatigue effects) |
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Definition
| changes in the dependent variable due to instrumental bias or decay |
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Definition
| a mathematical phenomenon in which extreme scores (high or low) on one measurement tend to be less extreme on a second measurement |
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Definition
| occurs when comparison group participants differs in some systematic way from the treatment group participants |
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Definition
a research study has external validity (is externally valid) if the results of the study can be generalized to other people, places, conditions, and so forth.
External validity is synonymous with generalizability. |
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| Internal validity is synonymous with ____. |
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Definition
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| Threats to external validity |
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Definition
any factor that decreases the likelihood that the results of the study can be generalized to other participants and settings.
• College students
• Cross-species generalizations – generalizing from nonhuman research to humans
• Participant characteristics – demographic characteristics that limit the ability to generalize
• Volunteer bias – participants who volunteer for a research investigation may differ on particular characteristics from non-volunteer
• Novelty effect – because of the novelty of the research situation, participants may respond differently than they would in the normal, real world
• Experimenter characteristics – the demographic and personality characteristics of the person conducting the study |
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Definition
| an external factor that may influence or distort measurement |
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Definition
| the outcome of the study are influenced by the expectations of the person conducting the study |
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Definition
| cues of features of the study that participants use to determine what is expected of them in the study |
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Definition
| change in participants behaviour due to their awareness of being watched (or observed) hawthorne effect |
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Term
| What are 3 ways to increase internal validity? |
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Definition
Randomly selection of participants from a population
Randomly assigning participants to a group
And use a control group |
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Term
Experimental Research Strategies:
- internal validity is ___.
- external validity is ___. |
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Definition
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Term
Descriptive research strategy:
- internal validity is ____.
- external validity is ____. |
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Definition
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Term
Correlational research strategy: goal is to demonstrate the existence of a relationship between two or more variables
- internal validity is ____.
- external validity is ____. |
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Definition
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Term
Quasi-experimental research strategies: very similar to true experiments, with the major difference being that in this you have a pre-assignment of participants to groups
- internal validity is ____ compared to descriptive and correlational studies
- external validity is ____ compared to experimental studies |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| provides a snapshot of people’s thoughts, feelings or behaviours a the time the study is conducted |
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Term
| Three different types of descriptive research: |
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Definition
1. Survey research
2. Observational research
3. Case study research |
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Term
| Steps to conducting survey research |
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Definition
Determining the type of questions to use
Constructing the survey
Obtaining a representative sample of respondents
Administering the survey |
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Term
| Types of questions in a survey |
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Definition
• yes-no questions →categorical and nominal data, can calculate frequency or percentage
• open-ended questions → rich data but have to decide how to quantify it in a meaningful way
• forced alternative questions
• multiple-choice questions
• rating scale questions (e.g. Likert scale, semantic differential) - can calculate and average or a mean |
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Term
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Definition
the appearance of your survey (e.g., uncluttered, orderly, appropriate language use)
Survey questions generally fall into 2 categories:
• Demographic questions (e.g. age, gender, occupation, marital status)
• Content questions (e.g. questions about opinions, attitudes, knowledge and behaviour) |
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Term
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Definition
• mail – not susceptible to interviewer bias, the response rate (how many people actually send them back). Average is 20-30% response rate for a mail survey. Need to send out at least 3 times as many surveys as you want to have returned…this can get very expensive.
• telephone
• face-to-face (personal interviews)
• internet (on-line surveys) |
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Term
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Definition
| when an interviewer gives subtle clues with body language or tone of vice that subtly influences the respondents into giving answers skewed towards the interviewers beliefs |
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Term
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Definition
| when an interviewer gives subtle clues with body language or tone of vice that subtly influences the respondents into giving answers skewed towards the interviewers beliefs |
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Definition
| the number of people who completed (returned) the survey divided by the number of people in the sample. |
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Definition
| those who respond differ in some way(s) from those who do not, the ones who take the time to actually do it… they differ in some way from those who didn’t send it. People who sent it back might have more experience with the topic of the survey or they have a special interest in the topic. This can limit your ability to generalize this to the rest of the population. It poses a threat to the external validity of the study. |
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Term
| talk about advantages and disadvantages of phone surveys |
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Definition
• Can contact random respondents in a short period of time
• Relatively high response rate
• The interviewer can ask for a clarification whereas in mail surveys you can’t
• Much less time intensive than doing face to face interviews
• Now we have caller id and stuff so people don’t answer
• People who do respond probably have very different characteristics than those who slam the phone down – perhaps lonely, busy, more polite
• Has to be less than 10 minutes
• With a phone or mail survey, you can’t always be 100% certain of the identity of the person who is responding to your survey |
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Term
| Advantages of Face to Face interviews |
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Definition
o Interviewer is right there so they can provide and receive clarification
o Literacy and comprehension skills become less of an issue
o Higher levels of motivation and interest…response rates are high
o People are willing to talk longer when face-to-face with the interviewer
o Tend to be more time consuming… have to contact them and arrange a place and time to meet, get there, conduct interview etc.
o Interviewer bias
o Interviewers need to be well trained |
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Term
| A survey of people's sexual preferences, sexual habits, number of partners, and so forth. |
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Definition
| mail survey because it is a sensitive topic so people might not want to talk about this to a stranger over the phone or to their face. - the nature of the topic |
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| A long survey on the types of cleaning products people use in their households |
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Definition
| face to face because it's too long for the phone, the topic of the survey is not riveting so people probably wouldn't send it back if it was sent as a mail survey |
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| A short survey of car-buying history in a large city. |
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Definition
| phone or mail survey. in a large city, it would be better to do it and more economical to make local calls. |
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| A nationwide survey of attitudes toward Prim Minister Stephen Harper |
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Definition
| a mail survey would be the most economical...have to pay for long distance and people might talk too much. |
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Term
| Internet survey advantages and disadvantages |
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Definition
• Main concern is the whole issue of validity, are they representative of the general population?
• Disadvantages
o Not every household has a computer/knows how to use it and certain demographics exist for those who do
o They are self selected respondents… they chose to answer themselves
• Advantages – can include other media such as sound or pictures
o Many things you can do on the computer than you can’t do in written form or with a telephone |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency to agree with all or most questions asked on a survey regardless of their content |
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Term
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Definition
| the tendency to respond to questions in a manner that makes the respondent look good in the eyes of the researcher |
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