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| Majority electoral democracy |
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| reflect collective will of average citizens, who are empowered via elections; median voter theory; optimistic |
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| policy-making power exists in hands of a small group of economic, political and military elite; conflicting interests between economic elite and masses; electoral spectacle vs. permanent government; pessimistic |
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| interest groups play a critical role in representing citizens preferences; power is fragmented, dispersed and fluid; policy often compromises among competing interests; even those not organized have latent power; optimistic |
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| not all groups can easily organize; free rider problem- people get benefits without effort; policy may reflect interest group influence, but from an unrepresentative universe of groups; so policy is tilted toward business groups, corps and trade associations; who is favored—business interests; pessimistic |
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| average citizens have little to no independent influence on policy at all; limited responsiveness when public wants government to act; when majority favors the status quo, likely to get their way, but not when they favor change |
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| President superiority bias |
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| because they are elected by the entire nation, presidents are attentive to the interests of the whole nation. They have more incentive to serve broad national interests because they are held accountable to everyone. They can hold him to a higher standard because he is a single person who is the main institutional advocate of general interests and provides the most reliable resistance to the demands of interest groups. They support general-interest measures at a much higher rate than Congress. |
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| Congressional parity thesis |
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| Congressmen are much more swayed by interest groups because they lobby and pay for campaigning; propose special-interest measures and do not often support general-interest proposals |
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| The United States Supreme Court held that the First Amendment prohibited the government from restricting independent political expenditures by a nonprofit corporation. The principles articulated by the Supreme Court in the case have also been extended to for-profit corporations, labor unions and other associations. |
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| Mettler- a political landscape densely cluttered with a vast array of policies of all varieties that were established at earlier points in time |
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| inherent characteristics of policies as they act to foster their growth and expansion, or to make them vulnerable to deterioration or contraction. They can transform policies and affect their capacity to achieve their original goals—pell grants lack automatic cost of living adjustments |
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| when policies yield side effects that their creators did not anticipate—ex by influencing the activity of individuals or organizations beyond those they aimed to affect. They can reshape the political system itself through feedback effects |
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| when policies are changed due to the impact of other unrelated policies |
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| keeping policies on track by monitoring them and assessing what repairs or renovations may be requires and then conduct reforms. It not, policies can be derailed by design effects, unintended consequences and lateral effects—party polarization, elite interests |
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| less likely for congress to support higher education, it’s all about who pays; obstacle for policy upkeep |
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| responsive to wealthy- obstacle for policy upkeep |
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| 15% of students at for-profits have to be nonvets aka not money from GI bill |
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| federation of state Public Interest Research Groups stands up to powerful special interests on behalf of the American public, working to win concrete results for our health and our well-being. With a strong network of researchers, advocates, organizers and students in state capitals across the country, we take on the special interests on issues such as product safety, public health, political corruption, tax and budget reform and consumer protection, where these interests stand in the way of reform and progress. |
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| Federal Family Education Loan program |
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| bankers were the middle man for loans- making lots of money; taken away |
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| main federal law that ensures the quality of Americans' drinking water; EPA sets standards for drinking water quality and oversees the states, localities, and water suppliers who implement those standards. |
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| establishes the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into the waters of the United States and regulating quality standards for surface waters; EPA has implemented pollution control programs such as setting wastewater standards for industry; set water quality standards for all contaminants in surface waters; unlawful to discharge any pollutant from a point source into navigable waters, unless a permit was obtained |
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