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| Vague, positive statements that can be true for everyone "horoscope |
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| (way of knowing the truth) Think it's true because we have always known it to be that way |
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| (Ways of knowing the truth) "it's true because i believe/feel that it is" |
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| (ways of knowing the truth) Accept an idea because an authority told us |
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| (way of knowing truth) using individual powers of reason or logic to know the world |
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| (way of knowing truth) personal experiences as the means of deciding what is true |
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| reasoning aided by observation and measurement |
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| (way of knowing truth) how and why of what we believe; its understanding and using rules |
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Replicable--study's procedures can be recreated
Verifiable--previous results can be found by others
Rhetoric--language of a given field which encompasses proper use of technical definitions,hypothesis,etc |
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| theoretical concepts formulated to serve as casual or descriptive explanations (Ex: Hunger) |
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| Event or condition the experimenter observes or measures (way we represent constructs) |
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| Effect reasearcher is interested in (we think will change) |
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| Experimenter manipulates to determine whether there are effects on D.V. (Cause) |
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| (Research approach) How things are; observations or records; a fact |
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| (Research approach) how two things go together (in relation to each other); make judgments or guesses about future outomes |
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| Explanation (experimental research) |
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(research approach) how things are and how they got to be that way;
allows us to understand behavior and change it;
offers reason;
found through experiments |
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| Observational Research (description approach) |
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Definition
behavior is watched or people are asked about behavior
ex: case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys |
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| Correlational studies (prediction approach) |
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provide info needed to show relationship or allow prediction
NO IV
2 or more dependent variables are measured |
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| Experiment (explanation approach) |
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necessary to show cause/effect
manipulating or changing some aspect of situation
observing effect on thought or behavior |
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| elimination of any extraneous variables that can affect treatment (only way to identify cause) |
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meaning of a variable in abstract or conceptual terms
ex: obesity--severely overweight |
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| -definitions of theoretical constructs that are stated in terms of concrete, observable procedures
specific, clear, & replicable
ex:obesity--measurement of waist to hip ratio over physicians recomended number |
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ideas or questions formulated by researcher;
statement about what may be true.
general and informal=descriptive
specific and formal=prediction or explanation |
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| hypothesis that is testable |
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| Intensive case study (source of ideas) |
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study one person or small group
descriptive
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| Accounting for a paradox (Source of idea) |
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making sense of contradictory findings
ex: some perform well w/ audience; some alone |
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| Common Sense (Source of idea) |
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| ex: marrying someone with different core values, is obviously bad. |
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| Improve on old ideas (source of idea) |
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"There is nothing so practical as a good theory" --Lewin
look at what others have done, and revise it or expand |
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| Observe the world around you (Source of idea) |
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Definition
something that makes you wonder, "why do people do that"
annoying behaviors, etc. |
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| What makes a theory good? |
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Definition
1. organizes and explains
2. generate new knowledge
3. tell you how and why |
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| Good ideas for an experiment should.. (5) |
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Definition
-be answerable
-worth assessing
-correspond with reality
-coherant & parsimonious (understandable/goes together & sparing/frugal)
-falsifiable (popper: idea that cant be refuted is not scientific)
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| Occam's Razor (good idea for experiment) |
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| What can be explained on fewer principles is explained needlessly by more |
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| set of guidelines to assist the experimenter in making difficult decisions |
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| Psychological Researchers are responsible for (in dealing w/ ethics) |
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-evaluating study's ethics
-following APA ethics code
-actions of their collaborators & assistants |
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| Informed Consent occurs (5) |
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Definition
-Ps agree to be part of experiment
-participate voluntary (not pressured)
-free to leave at any time
-told what is required of them during study
-told about any potential harm that may come |
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| issues w/ consent (who can and cant give consent) |
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Definition
-observational studies dont need consent
-prisioners, mental patients, and under 18 yr olds cannot give consent |
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| Minimal risk (dont need informed consent)(6) |
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-anonymous
-no deception
-no highly personal topics (sex)
-no shocks
-no drug/alcohol
-no taking of bodily fluids |
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| If a participant is at risk.. |
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Definition
-requires detailed consent form
-study description is detailed
-participant & experimenter must be "clear & fair" |
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| Participant is misinformedabout some aspect of study (blatently lying) |
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| Participant receives incomplete info about study (intentionally leaves out) |
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"in our other interhuman relationships, most of us would never think of doing the kinds of things we do to our subjects"
--lies and tricks
--misleading them deliberately
-witholding info
-making promises we dont plan to keep |
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Term
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Definition
disclosing to participants the nature of research in which they participated
-includes purpose
-nature of manipulations
-clears up misunderstandings and questions
-making sure they leave lab in same/better mood they came in with |
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| Belief Perserverance Phenomenon |
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Definition
clinging to ones initial conceptions
-occurs when foundation for one's belief is discredited by explanation of why belief might be true |
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| other rights to participants |
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Definition
-privacy (thoughts or personality; convo b/w E & P)
-right to be alone w/o being disturbed
-right to know what happens to data
-anonymity (no ID is collected)
-confidentiality (E cant release data of personal nature to others w/o P's consent) |
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-name
-assign # to category (plate #)
-no true numerical property
-arent ordered
ex: gender
appropriate stats: mode |
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-variables can be ordered on some dimension
-numbers have rank
-cant draw conclusions about interval size
-doesnt allow prediction
appropriate stat: mode or median
ex: birth order, races |
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-numbers have meaning
-intervals b/w # are equal
-zero is arbitrary
appropriate stats: all
ex: rating skills; temperature |
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-has absolute zero
-can draw conclusions about intensity (X can be 2x bigger than y)
-appropriate stats: all
ex: test scores; height
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| -extent to which observations are consistent or stable |
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Test-Retest
--consistent across different points in time
Internal consistency
--data is consistent across subgroups of items
Interrater
--two or more judges agree about observations |
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| -approach to hypothesis testing in which researchers attempt to gather evidence that supports or confirms a theory or hypothesis |
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| -measure on surface seems to be measuring what its supposed to measure (looks like its supposed to be) |
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| -addresses whether test adequately samples relevant material (measure should cover ALL major aspects of content area) |
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-measure correlates with 1 or more outcome criteria
ex: Sat score should predict GPA scores |
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Convergent:
--supported by substantial correlation of conceptually similar measures
Divergent:
--supported by lack of correlation b/w conceptually unrelated measures |
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| metaphysical explanations |
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| established physical laws primarily by attributing behavior or experiences to nonphysical forces such as spirits or gods |
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belief that natural phenomena are alive and influence behavior;
part of metaphysical explanations |
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-2nd group of metaphysical explanations
-make the assumption that deities play an important role in human behavior
-more sophisticated and comprehensive than animistic explanations, |
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-3 group of metaphysical systems
-human behavior is determined by the activity of celestial bodies |
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| study of knowledge, behavior, and the nature of reality by making use of logic, intuition, and empirical observations |
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| based only on observations that can be made with absolute certainty |
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| idea that the best way to learn about the world is to make observations |
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| study of the functions of and interrelations between different parts of the brain and body |
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fundamental principals that are more or less accepted on faith
-determinism
-empiricism
-parsimony
-testability |
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| the idea that all events have meaningful, systematic causes |
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| information about proportion of things in a target population |
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| should be extremely frugal in developing (or choosing between) theories by steering away from unnecessary concepts |
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| idea is that scientists should go a step beyond putting their theories to some kind of test by actively seeking out tests that could prove their theories wrong |
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| universal statement of the nature of things that allows reliable predictions of future events |
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| general statement about the relation between two or more variables |
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| the notion that the same behavior is often produced by many different causes |
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reasoning from specific instances to general principles
ex: case study |
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reasoning from the general to the specific;
-general statement (theory) is used to develop predictions (hypothesis)that are then tested against observations |
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| tendency for people who are evaluating hypotheses to attempt to confirm rather than to disconfirm these hypotheses. |
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| tendency for social perceivers to elicit behaviors from a person that are consistent with their initial expectancies of the person |
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| cognitive disonance theory |
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states that when a person simultaneously holds two beliefs that are dissonant (inconsistent), the person will experience an aversive state of arousal
-ex: being paid to lie
-assumes the experience of discomfort is driving force behind attitude change |
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| approach to hypothesis testing where researchers try to identify the boundary conditions under which a theory or hypothesis is and is not true |
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| analyzing the practitioner's rule of thumb |
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inductive technique
-analyzing things that experts in a particular area do to achieve certain outcomes |
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| luck or good fortune; inductive technique |
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| applying a functional or adaptive analysis |
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| ask themselves basic questions about what organisms have to do to successfully master their enviornments |
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| hypothetico-deductive method |
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| begin w/ a set of basic assumptions or observations and derive one or more logical consequences from these basic principles |
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| accounting for conflicting results |
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deductive technique
-struggling to fit contradictory theories together into a more comprehensive theory |
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| accounting for exceptions |
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goal of psychological research is not to determine what is true; instead it is to determine when or for whom a given psychological principle is true
-finding exceptions to general rules |
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| perform risk-benefit analyses to ensure that all studies meet consensual community standards of ethical behavior |
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| researchers cannot place people under any kind of psychological pressure to take part in or remain involved in a study |
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| extent to which a set of research findings provides compelling info about causality |
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| changes in one variable must correspond with changes in the other |
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| changes in the first variable must precede the changes in the second |
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extent to which a set of research findings provides an accurate description of what typically happens in the real world
-high in external validity=generalizability; will apply to other people, environments and cultures |
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| trained research assistant |
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