Empiricism

the view that knowledge comes from experience via the sense and science flourishes through observation and experiment.

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore structure of the human mind

Functionalism

a school of psychology that focused on how mental behavioral processes function. -How they enabled the organism to adapt, survive and flourish

Psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

Nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.

Natural selection

the principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

Applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

Clinical Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies assesses and treats people with psychological disorders.

Hindsight bias-

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.( Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

Critical thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather it examines assumptions discerns hidden values evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions.

Critical thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather it examines assumptions discerns hidden values evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions.

Hypothesis

a testable prediction often implied by theory .

Operational definition- a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, intelligence maybe operationally define as what an intelligence test measures.

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people usually by questioning a representative, random samples of them

False consensus effect-

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which other share our beliefs and behaviors.

Population

Population- all the cases in which samples maybe drawn for a study ( Note: except for national studies this does not refer to a country’s whole population.

Random sample

Random sample- a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Naturalistic observation

Naturalistic observation- observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Correlation coefficient-

a statistical measure of extent to which two factors vary together and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

scatter plot-

scatter plot- a graphed cluster of dots each of which represents the value of two variables the slope of the points suggests the direction of the points suggests the direction if the relationship between the two variables the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation ( little scatter indicates high correlation). (Also called a scatter gram or scatter diagram).

Illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

Experiment

a research method in which an investigators manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable).By random assignment of participants, the experiment controls other relevant factors

Double-blind procedure-

a experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or placebo commonly used in drug - evaluation studies.

Placebo effect- experimental results caused by expectations alone ; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an insert substance or condition which assumed to be an active agent.

Experimental condition

the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is to one version of the independent variable

Control condition-

the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Random assignment-

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting difference between those assignments to the different groups.

Independent variable-

the experimental factor that is manipulated the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent variable

- the experimental factor in psychology, the behavior or mental process that is being measured: the variable that may change in response to manipulation of the independent variable

Mode

Mode- the most frequently occurring score in a distribution.

Median

the middle score in a distribution half the scores are above it and half below it.

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in distribution

Standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that obtained result occurred by chance.

Culture

the enduring behaviors ideas attitudes and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Biological Psychology

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior (some biological psychologist call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neurophysiologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists or biopsychology’s).

Neuron

a nerve cell; that basic building block of nervous system

Dendrite-

the bushy branching extensions of neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses towards the cell body.

Axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to others neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin sheath-

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

Action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neurons and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron the tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neurons, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron will generate a neural impulse.

Endorphins-

“morphine within” - a natural opiatelike neurotransmitter linked to pain control and to pleasure

Nervous system-

the bodies speedy electrochemical communication system consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system

Central nervous system

- the brain and spinal cord. (CNS)

Peripheral nervous system

(PNS) the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

Nerves

neutral “cables” containing many axons these bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system connect the central nervous system with muscles , glands and sense organs.

Sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system.

Interneurons

central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Motor neurons

- neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands

Somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal nervous system.

Autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the gland and the muscles of the internal organ (such as heart). Its sympathetic division arouses ; its parasympathetic division calms.

Parasympathetic nervous system

the division the autonomic nervous system that calms the body ,conserving its energy.

Reflex

a simple automatic ; inborn response to a sensory stimulus such as the knee -jerk response

Neural networks

interconnected neural cells with experience, network can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connection that produce certain results. Computer simulations of neural networks show analogous.

Lesion

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

Electroencephalogram (EEG)-

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweeps across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

CT (computed tomography) scan

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computers in to a composite representation of a slice through the body. Also called CAT scan.

PET (positron emission tomography) scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)-

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue ; allow us to see structures within the brain

Thalamus

the brain’s sensory switchboard located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Cerebellum

the “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance

Limbic system

a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres: associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala and hypothalamus

Amygdala

- two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotions

Hypothalamus-

a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus ; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature) helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland and linked to emotion.

Cerebral cortex -

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemisphere; the body’s ultimate control and information processing center

Glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.

Parietal lobes-

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; includes the sensory cortex

Occipital lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head: includes the visual areas which receive visual information from the opposite visual field.

Temporal lobes-

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory information primarily from the opposite ear.

Motor cortex-

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

Sensory cortex

the area at the front of the parietal lobes that register and processes body sensation.

Association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory function; rather , they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning remembering, thinking, and speaking.

Aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to wernicke’s area (impairing understanding)

Broca’s area

controls language expression an area of the frontal lobe usually in the left hemisphere that directs the muscle movement involved in speech.

wernicke’s area

controls language expression -an area of the frontal lobe usually involved in language comprehension and expression ; usually in the left temporal lobe.

Plasticity

the brain’s capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effect of experience on brain development.

Corpus callosum-

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

Split brain

a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers( mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them

Endocrine system

the body’s “slow” chemical communication system ;a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Hormones

chemical messengers mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands that are produced in one tissue and affect another.

Adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. The adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and nor epinephrine (noradrenaline) which help to arouse the body in time of stress

Pituitary gland

the endocrine system’s most influential gland under the influence of the hypothalamus the pituitary regulates growth and controls the other endocrine glands.