Term
| How is natural selection related to changes in animal behavior? |
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Definition
| Animals with certain traits or inborn tendencies that aid survival are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on these traits in their genes. This, over time, makes the survivability traits the norm for the species. |
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Term
| What are the three forms of biological behavior in animals? |
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Definition
Reflexes – involve only one part of the body, totally involuntary
Modal Action Patterns (Instincts) – like reflex, but involves whole organism, and is a reaction to a certain stimuli
General Behavior Traits – No releasers, these are like instincts, but may be applied to a variety of stimuli, and so are much more general. Less stereotypical, but still a present pattern |
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Term
| What examples of reflexes are described in the text? |
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Definition
| Eye blink, papillary reflex, sneeze, vomit, rooting, sucking, swallowing. |
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Term
| What do sensitization and habituation mean in regard to reflexes? |
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Definition
Sensitization—when we react to a stimuli, and this causes us to react the same way to other stimuli.
Habituation – repeatedly evoking a reflex until it no longer occurs so frequently. |
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Term
| What examples of fixed (modal) action patterns are described in the text? |
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Definition
| Cats arch back and growl to attacker, opossum plays dead, bird migration, V formation, Pigs root, spider webs, woodpeckers, mate attraction dancing, sheep bashing. |
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Term
| What term was used in the past instead of the term "fixed (modal) action pattern?" |
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Definition
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Term
| What does the term releaser mean in regard to fixed action patterns? |
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Definition
| Releasers are the situation or stimuli that cause the modal action pattern. Whether it is a certain sight, smell, or sound, it is the situation that triggers the instinctual actions. |
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Term
| What behavior is discussed in the text as the only possible example of a fixed action pattern in humans? |
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Definition
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Term
| What examples of inherited (general) behavior traits are described in the text? |
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Definition
| Aggressive behavior at the presence of an aversive (shock, pinprick, cold water spray, etc…) |
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Term
| How do inherited behavior traits change over generations? |
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Definition
| If certain behavior traits are the only ones in the breeding pool, than animals will gradually become more and more like those traits. Selective breeding can bring out specific traits, and strengthen it, by only picking animals that are the most like a certain trait. |
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Term
| What are the primary limitations of natural selection as a way of coping with environmental changes? |
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Definition
First major problem is that the coping with change is slow, over generations. There must be learning in same lifetime for animals to overcome sudden problems.
Another is that the changes helped the ancestor survive, and not the current animal. So that the selective changes may have no use to the animal now. |
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Term
| How does the text define learning? Note: Many learning researchers use the term stimulus (or S) in place of the term experience; and they use the term response (or R) in place of the term behavior change; thus learning is frequently symbolized as S-R or R-S |
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Definition
| Learning means change. Experience (stimulus) causes a change (response) in behavior, which is learning. |
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Term
| What are the three basic types of learning? |
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Definition
| Pavlovian, Operant, & Observational |
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Term
| How does learning relate to natural selection? |
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Definition
| Learning is the greatest result of natural selection. Being able to learn is the ultimate survival skill. |
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Term
| How does learning relate to the "Nature vs. Nurture" argument? |
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Definition
| Learning plays a major role, right along with heredity. Not much to say here… |
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Term
| What is a critical period? |
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Definition
| A period in which someone must learn something, or else it will be missed and never understood to the same degree it could have been. |
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Term
| What are circular explanations? |
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Definition
| An explanation that assumes the argument is true in order to prove the argument itself. X is because of Y. Why Y? Well, it is because of X. |
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Term
| What is an operational definition? |
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Definition
| A definition of a term or idea that is used in an argument or experiment. It must be specific and unable to be disputed. It is used to measure. |
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Term
| What two characteristics of a stimulus determine its effectiveness? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the common ways to measure learning (i.e., dependent variables)? Know examples of each. |
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Definition
1. Counting and measuring errors. Decrease in errors shows learning. Like rats in milk.
2. Intensity. Measurement of magnitude, such as saliva of Pavlov’s dogs.
3. Speed of the action, like a job, or reciting the alphabet.
4. Topography of skill. Being better at something. Writing, tracing, or playing a musical instrument.
5. Rate of response. Frequency. How fast do they pull the lever? |
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Term
| What machine, developed by B.F. Skinner, is commonly used to measure the rate of response? |
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Definition
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Term
| According to behavioral researchers, what are the different research designs and which is the best? Why? |
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Definition
1. Anecdotal – bad!
2. Case Study – better
3. Descriptive study – correlational studies. Looking for patterns in statistics.
4. Experiments – best! |
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Term
| What are independent and dependent variables in learning experiments? |
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Definition
Independent – variables that experimenter can change.
Dependent – variable that experimenter is looking for. |
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Term
| How is the "single-subject design" different from the "between-subjects design?" |
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Definition
between-subjects design – two or more groups, each experiences different independent variables, and their results are compared
Single-subject design – one group, and they have the independent variable changed for them, before variable and then after, for example, more valid because its just one group. ABA stuff is here. |
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Term
| What is the ABA (or ABAB) reversal design? |
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Definition
| A is baseline, (pre variable). B is the results after the variable. In order to prove that nothing else created the results, however, we go back to A, and see if it sticks. If it does, it must be another variable, if it doesn’t, then the independent variable was the true stimulus. |
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Term
| How do behavioral researchers view animal research? |
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Definition
| It is essential. A must. We have control over heredity. We control actions, less ethics. |
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Term
| What are some commonly expressed objections to animal research? |
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Definition
| We are not rats or birds, research does not apply. Some say it is not useful, we may learn facts, but it doesn’t actually change anything, or it is just theoretical. Finally, its unethical. But that’s definitely a stupid one… |
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Term
| What are the facts about Pavlov's life? |
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Definition
| Noble prize for his discoveries that involved digestion. Remembered for his research on the dog's salvating gland. Died at 92 years old, worked in his lab 5 days prior to death. He was Russian. |
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Term
| What are the basic procedures and terms of Pavlovian conditioning? |
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Definition
3 terms for his experiments: Pavlovian Conditioning, Classical Conditioning, Respondent Conditioning – all the same thing.
Conditioning is when some external stimulus gets connected to some sort of reflex. Contains terms such as unconditional reflexes, conditional reflexes, unconditional stimulus, and unconditional responses. |
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Term
| What is higher order conditioning? |
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Definition
| Higher-Order Conditioning – that is using a CS to actually train another CS, without ever using the US. This actually works. However, the third generation does not happen very well though. The second comes easily, but the third struggles. |
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Term
| What other terms are sometimes used to refer to Pavlovian conditioning? |
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Definition
| Classical conditioning, respondent learning; and S-S learning |
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Term
| How is Pavlovian learning typically measured? |
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Definition
Latency is one. How long did it take for the CS led to CR.
Intensity, strength, amplitude, or magnitude. That is how strong the response happened. Such as, how much saliva?
Conditioned suppression. When something has been conditioned to do a certain task, it may stop when paired with uncomfortable US. How much their behavior is affected is a measure of how strong the conditioning. |
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Term
| What are trace conditioning, delayed conditioning, simultaneous conditioning, and backward conditioning? Which is the most difficult to produce? |
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Definition
Trace – classic, CS first, then US. Best, learning, the fastest
Delayed – CS overlaps with US. Not as good, but still works
Simultaneous – both occur together, doesn’t work well at all.
Backward – US happens before the CS. Can be made to work, but takes a great deal of time. Completely useless. |
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Term
| In Pavlovian conditioning, what does "contingency" mean? |
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Definition
| When one thing occurs, something else always occurs. |
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Term
| How did Rescorla try to show that CS-US contingency was a necessary condition for Pavlovian conditioning? |
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Definition
| He used the condition suppression paradigm. He would expose rats to a tone then a shock. The greater the contingency in which the tone proceeded the shock and the highest contingency produced greater learning. That one does not occur without the other. So contingency is essential to Pavolian learning. |
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Term
| In Pavlovian conditioning, what does the term "contiguity" mean? |
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Definition
| When very close to each other- How many seconds between CS and US to learning. |
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Term
| What do these terms mean? compound stimulus, overshadowing, latent inhibition,extinction, and spontaneous recovery |
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Definition
compound stimulus-"Presenting two stimulus at same time. Such as a redlight and a tone."
overshadowing- "one stimulant overshadows another."
latent inhibition- "Preexposure to a CS followed by CS-US pairings retard the generation of the CR."
extinction- "conditioned response slowly goes away but does not mean it is forgotten."
spontaneous recovery- "When bring animal back to where response was extinguished and the animal shows a response again." |
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Term
| What is the relationship between the number of stimulus pairings and the amount of learning? |
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Definition
| Compound stimulus, two or more Stimuli together. Usually the subject shows the CR to one, but not the other stimulus when they are separated. One is said to OVERSHADOW another. Decision on which one it is usually depends on which one is stronger. The stronger stimulus will override the weaker. More associated-more going to occur-more learning. |
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Term
| What are the major theories of Pavlovian conditioning and what are their basic assumptions? |
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Definition
The first, stimulus-response theory, suggests that an association to the unconditioned stimulus is made with the conditioned stimulus within the brain, but without involving conscious thought. The second, stimulus-stimulus theory involves cognitive activity, in which the conditioned stimulus is associated to the concept of the unconditioned stimulus, a subtle but important distinction.
Preparatory-response theory. That CS acts as a preparor for the US that lead to CR. Shown with Eye blinking studies. |
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Term
| How does the Preparatory Response theory help explain unexpected reactions to addictive drugs? |
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Definition
| That CS acts as a preparer for the US that lead to CR. Shown with Eye blinking studies. The body learns to brace itself for the drug based on the stimulus associated with take the drug.So if the user, takes the drug out of the situation that the body as prepared for, such as a different location, then this can cause an overdose. |
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Term
| How is a fear (such as the fear of the sound of a dentist's drill) conceptualized in terms of Pavlovian conditioning? |
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Definition
| All higher emotions and behaviors all go back to one of the basic 3 emotions, fear, love, and rage. We associate something negative (such as pain) with some stimulus (such as the drill). Eventually, just the stimulus can engender negative reactions. This fear is now conditioned. |
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Term
| How did Mary Cover Jones overcome a child's fear? |
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Definition
| Exposure therapy, just a little bit at a time. They would associate something good (such as a snack), with the fear (rabbits in this case). Counterconditioning. Systematic desensitization. |
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Term
| What is counterconditioning as applied to Pavlovian conditioning? |
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Definition
| The idea of using the principle of conditioning to reverse conditioning that has already occurred. For example, they might try to condition a fear to no longer bother the individual. They help someone step by step by combining positive experiences with the fear. |
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Term
| What is systematic desensitization? |
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Definition
Much like I’ve described counterconditioning, it is helping someone imagine a weak form of the stimulus while relaxed. It gets stronger and stronger until it is no longer a source of fear. Developed by Wolpe. 3 phases. 1st step is to create a fear hierarchy. Most fearful on top, mild on bottom. 2nd Step Get in a state of deep relaxation (hypnosis). 3rd imagine the bottom of the hierarchy step and back off if you are upset. Go back and forth until it is no longer fearful.
Rothbaum has developed virtual reality exposure therapy. |
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Term
| According to Arthur and Caroline Staats, how is predjudice acquired? |
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Definition
| LANGUAGE. When races or nationalities are combined with certain strongly emotionally meaningful words, then racism occurs. |
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Term
| How can advertising be conceptualized as an effort to produce Pavlovian conditioning? |
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Definition
| They associate positive emotions and ideations with their product to make the consumer associate certain emotions with a product. Or they associate competitors with negative feelings and emotions. |
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Term
| According to Behavioral theory, how might paraphilias have been acquired? And how could they be treated? |
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Definition
| Certain behaviors or unusual stimuli must have been conditioned to some sexual response or interest, probably early in life. Aversion therapy seems to work. |
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Term
Know the details of Garcia's research on taste aversions. What were the methods and the
conclusions? |
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Definition
| Rats and radiation. They caused nausea in rats when they drank sweet water. They eventually quit drinking sweet water altogether. The stronger the nausea, the stronger the reaction. Differed from Pavlov, in that there was only 1 trial, and the CR was much later than the US. |
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Term
| How might Pavlovian conditioning explain changes in immune system functioning? |
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Definition
We may develop allergies through Pavlovian conditioning. When an actual allergen is associated with a CS. Eventually the exposure to the stimulus alone will cause the allergic reaction.
Body also is conditioned to respond to drugs, so that a drug user who uses heroin in a new situation or place, their body may not prepare, and they may die of an overdose. |
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