Term
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Definition
| Relying on or derived from observation, experimentation, or measurement |
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Term
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Definition
| The discipline concerned with behavior and mentalprecesses and how they are affected by an organism's physical state,mental state, and external environment |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability and willingness to assess claims and make judgements on the basis of well-supported evidence rather than emotion or anecdote. |
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Term
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Definition
| The now discredited theory that different brain areas account for specific character and personality traits, which can be "read" from bumbs on the skull. |
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Term
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Definition
| An early psychological approach that emphasized the analysis of immediate experience into basic elements. |
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Term
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Definition
| An early psychological approach that emphasized the function or purpose of behavior and consciousness. |
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Term
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Definition
| A theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy, originally formulated by Sigmund Freud, that emphasizes unconscious motives and conflicts. |
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Term
Biological Perspective
(p 20) |
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Definition
| A psychological approach that emphasizes bodily events and changes associated with actions, feelings, and thoughts. |
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Term
Evolutionary Psychology
(p 21) |
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Definition
| A field of psychology emphasizing evolutionary mechanisms that may help explain human commonalities in cognition, development, emotion, social practices, and other areas of behavior. |
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Term
Learning Perspective
(p 21) |
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Definition
| A psychological approach that emphasizes how the environment and experience affect a person's or animals's actions; it includes Behaviorism and Social-Cognitive learning theories. |
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Term
Cognitive Perspective
(p 21) |
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Definition
| A psychological approach that emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other areas of behavior. |
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Term
Sociocultural Perspective
(p 21) |
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Definition
| A psychological approach that emphasizes social andcultural influences on behavior. |
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Term
Psychodynamic perspective
(p 22) |
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Definition
| A psychological approach that emphasizes unconscious dynamis within the individual, such as inner forces, conflicts, or the movement of instinctual energy. |
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Term
Humanist Psychology
(p 22) |
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Definition
| A psychological approach that emphasizes free will, personal growth, resilience, and the achievement of human potential |
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Term
Feminist Psychology
(p 23) |
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Definition
| A psychological approach that analyzes the influence aof social inequities on gender relations and on the behavior of the two sexes. |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of psychological issues in order to seek knowledge for its own sake rather than for its practical application. |
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Term
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Definition
| The study of psychological issues that have direct practical significance; also, the application of psychological findings. |
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Term
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Definition
| An organized system of assumptions and principles that purports to explain a specified set of phenomena and their interrelationships. |
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Term
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Definition
| A statement that attempts to predict or to account for a set of phenomena; scientific hypotheses specify relationships among events or variables and are empirically tested. |
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Term
Operational Definition
(p 37) |
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Definition
| A precise definition of a term in a hypothesis, which specifies the operations for observing and measuring the process or phenomenon being defined. |
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Term
Principle of Falsifiability
(p 37) |
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Definition
| The principle that a scientific theory must make predictions that are specific enough to expose the theory to the possibility of disconfirmation; that is, the theory must predict not only what will happen but also what will not happen. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to look for or pay attention only to information that confirms one's own beliefs. |
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Term
Representative Sample
(p 40) |
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Definition
| A group of subjects selected from a population for study, which matches the population on important characteristics such as age and sex. |
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Term
Descriptive Methods
(p 39) |
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Definition
| Methods that yield descriptions of behaviorbut not necessarily causal explanations. |
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Term
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Definition
| A detailed description of a particular individual being studied or treated. |
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Term
Observational Study
(p 43) |
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Definition
| A study in which the researcher carefully and systematicall observes and records behaviorwithout interfering with the behavior; it may involve either naturalistic or laboratory observation. |
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Term
Psychological Tests
(p 44) |
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Definition
| Procedures used to measure and evaluate personality traits, emotional states, aptitudes, interests, abilities, and values. |
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Term
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Definition
| In test construction, to develop uniformprocedures for giving and scoring a test. |
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Term
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Definition
| In test construction, established standards of performance. |
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Term
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Definition
| In test construction, the consistency of scores derived from a test, from one time and place to another. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure. |
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Term
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Definition
| Questionnaires and interviews that ask people directly about their experiences, attitudes, or opinions. |
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Term
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Definition
| A shortcoming of findings derived from a sample of volunteers instead of a representative from sample; the volunteers may differ from those who did not volunteer. |
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Term
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Definition
| A descriptive study that looks for a consisten relationships between two phenomena. |
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Term
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Definition
| A measure of how strongly to variables are related to one another. |
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Term
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Definition
| Characteristics of behavior or experience that can be measured or desribed by a numeric scale. |
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Term
Positive Correlation
(p 48) |
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Definition
| An association between increases in one variable and increases in another--or between decreases in one and in another. |
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Term
Negative Correlation
(p 49) |
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Definition
| An association between increasesin one variable and decreases in another. |
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Term
Coefficient of Correlation
(p 49) |
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Definition
| A measure of correlation that ranges in value from -1.00 to +1.00. |
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Term
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Definition
| A controlled test ofa hypothesis in which the researcher manipulates one variable to discover its effects on another. |
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Term
Independent Variable
(p 52) |
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Definition
| A variable that an experimenter manipulates. |
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Term
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Definition
| A variable that an experimenter predictswill be affected by manipulations of the independent variable. |
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Term
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Definition
| In an experiment, a comparison condition in which subjects are not exposed to the same treatment as in experimental condition. |
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Term
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Definition
| A procedure for assigning people to experimental and control groups in which each individual has the same probability as any other of being assigned to a given group. |
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Term
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Definition
| An inactive substance or fake treatment used as a control in an experiment or given by a medical practitioner to a patient. |
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Term
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Definition
| An experiment in which subjects do not know whether they arein an experiemntal or control group. |
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Term
Experimenter Effects
(p 54) |
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Definition
| Unintended changes in subjects' behavior due to cues inadvertently by the experimenter. |
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Term
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Definition
| An experiment in which neither the subjects nor the individuals running the study know which subjectsare in the control group and which are in the experimental group until after the results are tallied. |
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Term
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Definition
| Descriptive or experimental research conducted in a natural setting outside the laboratory. |
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Term
Descriptive Statistics
(p 57) |
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Definition
| Statistical procedures that organize and summarize research data. |
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Term
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Definition
| An average that is calculated by adding up a set of quantities and dividing the sum by the total of quantities in the set. |
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Term
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Definition
| A commonly used measure of variability that indicates the average difference between scores in a distribution and their mean. |
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Term
Inferential Statistics
(p 59) |
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Definition
| Statistical procedures that allow researchers to draw inferences about how statistically meaningful a study's results are. |
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Term
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Definition
| Statistical tests that show how likely it is that a study's results occured merely by chance. |
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Term
Cross-Sectional Study
(p 60) |
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Definition
| A study in which subjects of different ages are compared at a given time. |
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Term
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Definition
| A study in which subjects are followed and periodically reassessed over a period of time. |
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Term
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Definition
| The amount of variance among scores in a study accounted for by the independent variable. |
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Term
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Definition
| A procedure for combining and analyzing data frommany studies; it determines how much of the variance in scores across all studies can be explained by a particular variable. |
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Term
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Definition
| The doctrine that human research subjects must participate voluntarily and must know enough about the study to make an intelligent decision about whether to participate. |
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Term
Central Nervous System (CNS)
(p 108) |
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Definition
| The portion of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord. |
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Term
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Definition
| A collection of neurons and supportive tissue running from the base of the brain down the center of the back, protected by a column of bones (the spinal column). |
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Term
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
(p 108) |
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Definition
| All portions of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord; it includes sensory and motor nerves. |
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Term
Somatic Nervous System
(p 109) |
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Definition
| The subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that connects to sensory receptors and to skeletal muscles; sometimes called the Skeletal Nervous System. |
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Term
Autonomic Nervous System
(p 109) |
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Definition
| The subdivision of the peripheral nervous system that regulates the internalorgans and glands. |
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Term
Sympathetic Nervous System
(p 109) |
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Definition
| The subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes bodily resources and increases the output of energy during emotion and stress. |
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Term
Parasympathetic Nervous System
(p 109) |
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Definition
| The subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that operates during relaxed states and that conserves energy. |
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Term
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Definition
| A cell that conducts electrochemical signals; the basic unit of the nervous system; also called a nerve cell. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cells that support, nurture, and insulate neurons, remove debris when neurons die, enhance the formationand maintenance of neural connections, and modify neuronal functioning. |
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Term
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Definition
| A neuron's branches that receive information from other neurons and transmit it toward the cell body. |
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Term
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Definition
| The part of the neuron that keeps it alive and determines whther it will fire. |
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Term
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Definition
| A neuron's extending fiber that conducts impules away from the cell body and transmtits them to other neurons. |
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Term
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Definition
| A fatty insulation that may surround the axon of a neuron. |
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Term
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Definition
| A bundle of nerve fibers (axons and sometimes dendrites) in the peripheral nervous system. |
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Term
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Definition
| The production of new neurons from immature stem cells. |
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Term
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Definition
| Immature cells that renew themselves and have the potential to develop into mature cells; given encouraging environments, stem cells from early embryos can develop into any cell type. |
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Term
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Definition
| The site where transmission of a nerve impulse from one nerve cell to another occurs; it includes the axon terminal, the synaptic cleft, and receptor sites in the membrane of the receiving cell. |
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Term
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Definition
| The brain's ability to change and adapt in response to experience--for example, by reorganizing or growing new neural connections. |
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Term
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Definition
| A brief change in electrical voltage that occurs between the inside and the outside of an axon when a neuron is stimulated; it serves to produce an electrical impulse. |
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Term
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Definition
| A chemical substance that is released by a transmitting neuron at the synapse and that alters the activity of a receiving neuron. |
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Term
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Definition
| Chemical substances in the nervous system that are similar in structure and action to opiates' they are involved in pain reduction, pleasure, and memory and are known technically as Endogeneous Opioid Peptides. |
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Term
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Definition
| Chemical substances, secreted, by organs called glands, tha affect the functioning of other organs. |
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Term
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Definition
| Internal organs that produce hormones and release them into the bloodstream. |
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Term
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Definition
| A hormone, secreted by the pineal gland, that is involved in the regulation of daily biological rhythms. |
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Term
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Definition
| A hormone, secreted by the pituitary gland, that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth, facilitates the ejection of milk during nursing, and seems to promote, in both sexes, attachement and trust in relationships. |
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Term
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Definition
| Hormones that are produced by the adrenal glands and that are involved in emotion and stress. |
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Term
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Definition
| Hormones that regulate the development and functioning of reproductive organs and that stimulate the development of male and female sexual characteristics; they include androgens, estrogens, and progesterone. |
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Term
Electroenephalogram (EEG)
(p 122) |
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Definition
| A recording of neural activity detected by electrodes. |
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Term
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
(p 122) |
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Definition
| A method of stimulating brain cells, using a powerful magnetic field produced by a wire coil placed on a person's head; it can be used by researchers to temporarily inactivate neural circuits and is also being used theraputically. |
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Term
Positron-Emission Tomography Scan (PET)
(p 123) |
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Definition
| A method for analyzing biochemical activity in the brain, using injections of a glucoselike substance containing a radioactive element. |
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Term
Magnetic Resonance Imagaing (MRI)
(p 123) |
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Definition
| A method for studying body and brain tissue, using magnetic fields and special radio reveivers. |
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Term
Localization of Function
(p 125) |
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Definition
| Specialization of particualr brain areas for particular functions. |
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Term
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Definition
| The part of the brain at the top of the spinal cord, consisting of the medulla and the pons. |
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Term
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Definition
| A structure in the brain stem involved in, among other things, sleeping, waking, and dreaming. |
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Term
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Definition
| A structure in the brain stem responsible for certain automatic functions, such as breathing and heart rate. |
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Term
Reticular Activating System (RAS)
(p 126) |
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Definition
| A dense network of neurons found in the core of the brain stem; it arouses the cortex and screens incoming information. |
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Term
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Definition
| A brain structure that regulates movement and balance and is involved in the learning of certain kinds of simple responses. |
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Term
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Definition
| A brain structure that relays sensory messages to the cerebral cortex. |
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Term
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Definition
| A brain structure involved in emotions and drives vital to survival, such as fear, hunger, thirst, and reproduction; it regulates the autonomic nervous system. |
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Term
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Definition
| A small endocrine gland at the base of the brain, which releases many hormones and regulates other endocrine glands. |
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Term
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Definition
| A group of brain areas involved in emotional reactions and motivated behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| A brain structure involved in the arousal and regulation of emotion and the initial emotional response to sensory information. |
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Term
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Definition
| A brain structure involved in the storage of new information in memory. |
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Term
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Definition
| The largest brain structure, consisting of the upper part of the brain; divided into two hemispheres, it is in charge of most sensory, motor, and cognitive processes. From the Latin for "brain." |
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Term
Cerebral Hemispheres
(p 128) |
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Definition
| The twohalvesof the cerebrum. |
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Term
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Definition
| The bundle of nerve fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres. |
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Term
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Definition
| Specialization of the two cerebral hemispheres for particular operations. |
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Term
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Definition
| A collection of several thin layers of cells covering the cerebrum; it is largely responsible for higher mental functions. |
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Term
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Definition
| Loves at the lower back part of the brain's cerebral cortex; they contain areas that receive visual information. |
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Term
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Definition
| Lobes at the top of the brain's cerebral cortex; they contain areas involved in hearing, memory, perception, emotion, and language comprehension. |
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Term
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Definition
| Lobes at the sides of the brain's cerebral cortex; they contain areas involved in hearing, memory, perception, emotion, and (in the left lobe, typically) language comprehension. |
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Term
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Definition
| Lobes at the front of the brain's cerebral cortex; they contain areas involved in short-term memory, higher order thinking, initiative, social judgement, and (in the left lobe, typically) speech production. |
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Term
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Definition
| A periodic, more or less regular fluctuation in biological system; it may or may not have psychological implications. |
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Term
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Definition
| The synchronization biological rhythms with external cues, such as fluctuations in daylight. |
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Term
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Definition
| Generated from within rather than by external cues. |
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Term
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Definition
| A biological rhythm with a period (from peak to peak or trough to trough) of about 24 hours. |
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Term
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
(p 149) |
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Definition
| An area of the brain containing a biological clock that governs circadian rhythms. |
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Term
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Definition
| A hormone secreted by the pineal gland; it is involved in the regulation of circadian rhythms. |
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Term
Internal Desynchronization
(p 150) |
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Definition
| A state in shich biological rhythms are not in phase (synchronized) with one another. |
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Term
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
(p 151) |
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Definition
| A controversial disorder in which a person experiences depression during the winter and an improvement of mood in the spring. |
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Term
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep
(p 157) |
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Definition
| Sleep periods characterized by eye movement, loss of muscle tone, and vivid dreams. |
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Term
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Definition
| A disorder in which breathing briefly stops during sleep, causing the person to choke and gasp and momentarily waken. |
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Term
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Definition
| A sleep disorder involving sudden and unpredictable daytime attacks of sleepiness or lases into REM sleep. |
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Term
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Definition
| A dream in which the dreamer is aware of dreaming. |
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Term
Activation-Synthesis Theory
(p 166) |
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Definition
| The theory that dreaming results from the cortical synthesis and interpretation of neural signals triggered by activity in the lower part of the brain. |
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Term
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Definition
| A procedure in which the practitioner suggests changes in a subject's sensations, perceptions, thoughts, feelings, or behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| A split in consciousness in which one part of the mind operates independently of others. |
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Term
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Definition
| Adrug capable influencing perception, mood, cognition, or behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| Drugs that speed up activity in the central nervous system. |
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Term
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Definition
| Drugs that slow activity in the central nervous system. |
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Term
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Definition
| Drugs, derived from the opium poppy, the relieve pain and commonly produce euphoria. |
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Term
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Definition
| Consciousness-altering drugs that produce hallucinations, change thought processes, or disrupt the normal perception of time and space. |
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Term
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Definition
| Increased resistance to a drug's effects accompanying continued use. |
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Term
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Definition
| Physical and psychological symptoms occur when someone addicted to a drug stops taking it. |
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