• In "what" of mental content
• Understanding experience by studying the components of that experience

• The "why" of mental content
• Understanding experience by studying the purpose of that experience

1. Hypotheses
2. Variables
3. Designs
4. Measures

Textable, explanation for a observed phenomenon

Note-specific experimental hypothesis usually take the form of predictions

Any factor that varies in amount or kind.

1. Independent
• Experiemental grouping
2. Dependent
• That which being measured
3. Extraneous
• Other factors that vary within the study
4. Confounding
• Extraneous variables that could account for the experimental results

• Cells
• Nuclei
• Chromosomes
• Genes
• DNA

What are Cells?

• The basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms.
• The smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life.
• The human body consists of trillions of cells (the functional basic unit of life)

• A plural of Nucleus
• All of these cells (except red blood cells) have a nucleus which contains genetic material

• Longs strands of genetic material
• Somatic cells have 46 (23 pairs)
• Sex cells (gametes) have 23 (singles)

• A unit of heredity in a living organism.
• It normally resides on a stretch of DNA that codes for a type of protein or for an RNAchain that has a function in the organism.
• Small segments of chromosomes containing instructions for the production of proteins, which regulate an organism’s appearance and behavior

• Deoxyribonucleic acid
• The hereditary material in humans and almost all other organisms.
• The material of chromosomes
• Sugar phosphate backbones holding nitrogen bases
• Arranged in a double helix

• The posterior part of the brain, adjoining and structurally continuous with the spinal cord.
• The deepest recesses of the brain, in a region.
• Structures involved primarily woth autonomic processes such as heart rate, breathing, swallowing, and digestion.

• A midline symmetrical structure within the brains of vertebratesincluding humans, situated between the cerebral cortex and midbrain.
• The relay station

• Emotion, motivation, and memory
• Amygdala
  
  • Emotional control
• Hypothalamus
• Motivated behavior (Homeostasis)
• Hippocampus
• Declarative memory

How does the Color Vision sense work?

• Stage 1
• Trichromatic theory (Ward)
• All color experiences arise from the mixing of signals from three types of cone by bi - polar cells
• Short Wave (Blue)
• Medium Wave (Green)  
• Large Wave (Red)

• Stage 2
• Opponent - process theory (Ewald hearing)
• Information from bipolar cells is integrated further by ganglion cells which code for:
• Black or white
• Green or Red
• Yellow or Blue

• Insomnia
• Narcolepsy
• Sleep apnea
• Somnambulism (sleep - walking)
• Night terrors
• Daytime sleepiness

Stage 1:

• Light sleep and You can be easily woken up.
• Your eye movement and body movements slow down.
• You may experience sudden jerky movement of your legs or other muscles.

Stage 2:

• 50 percent of your time sleeping is spent
• Eye movement stops and your brain waves (a measure of the activity level of the brain) become slower

Stage 3:

• The first stage of deep sleep
• The brain waves are a combination of slow waves, known as delta waves, combined with faster waves

Stage 4:

• The second stage of deep sleep. In this stage the brain is making the slow delta waves almost exclusively.
• It is also very difficult to wake someone up. Both stages of deep sleep are important for feeling refreshed in the morning. If it is too short, sleep will not feel satisfying.

REM Sleep:

• The sleep stage in which dreaming occurs.
• Breathing becomes fast, irregular and shallow.
• Your eyes will move rapidly and your muscles become immobile.
• Heart rate and blood pressure increase. Men may develop erections.
• 20 percent of sleep is REM sleep for adults.

• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
• Anything that neutrally elicits a reflexive behavior

• Neutral stimulus
• Any stimulus that does not elicit a reflexive behavior
• Neutral stimuli -no response

• Conditioned stimulus (CS)
• When a previously neutral stimulus starts to produce a response it is called a conditioned stimulus

• Unconditioned response (UCR)
• The behavior elicited
• Unconditioned stimuli -unconditional response

• Conditioned response (CR)
• The response elicited by a conditioned stimulus

• Continuous
• All responses rewarded/punished
• Good for acquisition

• Intermittent (partial)
• Not every response rewarded/punished
• Good for maintenance (resistance to extinction)
• 4 methods

• Fixed ratio (FR) schedule
• Reinforcement given every nth response
• Ex. Piecework

• Variable ratio (VR) schedule
• Reinforcement given on average every nth response
• Ex. Slot machines

• Fixed interval (FI) schedule
• Reward given on the first response after a set time
• Ex. Monthly exams
• Variable interval schedule
• Reward given on the first response after an average time
• Ex. Random tests
• Restraints
• A wide variety of behaviors can be shaped via operant conditioning but learning is limited by
• Biology
• Instinctive drift
• Biological preparedness

• Makes behavior less likely
• Primarily
  
  • Physiological punishments
• Secondary
  
  • Anything associated with primary (conditioned) punishments
• Positive Punishment
  
  • Giving/adding something aversive to made a behavior less likely
• Negative Punishment
  
  • Removing/take away something attractive to make a behavior less likely

A model consisting, of 3 stores (That vary in trace duration), which decides transient

• Retention of information over an extended period of time
• Capacity
• Unlimited
• Duration
• Potentially life long partially transient (Ebibinghaus)

• When you see everything in the picture
• The information you see

• Sometimes referred to as explicit memory
• One of two types of long term human memory
• Memories which can be consciously recalled such as facts and knowledge

• Memory for how to do things
• A type of long-term memory and, more specifically a type of implicit memory

• Choosing between alternatives
• Influences
• Bounded rationality (Simon, 1957)
• People have to make quick decisions, in real-world situations so we "satisfice" instead of optimizing

• The act of using mental processes to derive a conclusion from given information
• Involves content and process
• Logic (the science of reasoning) tells us if the process is correct

19th Century

1. "Hereditary Genius"
2. Eugenics
3. Objective Measurement
4. Correlation
5. Interest

20th Century

1. 1904 "special needs" commission
2. Binet-Simon Scale
3. 30 test items to measure "mental age"
4. But  comparison between ages impossible

20th Century

1. Adapted the Binet-Simon Scale for use in America (and incorporated ratio IQ)
2. Created the stanford-binet intelligence scale
3. Advocated eugenics

20th Century

1. Mental testing on Ellis Island
2. Selective exclusion of "inferior" groups

What century is David Wechsler and What is his intelligence testing?

20th Century

1. Bellevue Hospital NY
2. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
• WAIS IV
3. "Normalized" scores

• Heritability estimate shows 50% of variation in IQ score can be attributed to genes
• But genes and environment interact to accentuate differences

• Similarities vastly outweigh differences
• Females
• Better spelling, verbal ability, and some memory tasks
• Males
• Better spatial attribute

•  Health and nutrition
• Quality of environment (books, learning materials, interactions, etc.)
• Quality of schooling (mental stimulation)

• Certain ethnic groups tend to outperform others due to
• Attitude to academic success
• Link between ethnicity and socio-economic status
• Stereotype threat (Steele, 1992)

• Sensorimotor stage (0-2)
• Positive- exploration via basic motor behaviors
• Negative- lack of object permanence ( baby with toy)
• Preoperational stage (2-7)
• Positive- object permanence achieved
• Negative- egocentrism- inability to see things from another's point of view
• Negative- Centration
• Negative- inability to conserve- striking features capture peoples attention (child with pennies)
• Concrete operations stage (7-11)
• Positive- conservation mastered
• Positive- egocentrism disappears
• Positive- good at concrete tasks
• Negative- poor abstract reasoning
• Formal operations stage (11+)
• Positive- abstract, hypothetical reasoning mastered

• 1937
• Developed via proximity promoting signals/responses (or via imprinting in some animals

• 1969
• Biological predisposition
  

1965

Provides comfort and social experience

Strange situation test

• Measures quality of child PCG attachment
• Secure (70%) - become upset when PCG leaves, but eventually get over it
• Insecure (20%)- avoidant
• Insecure (10%)- ambivalent/resistant

Period in which social relationships and personal accomplishments take a special priority

• Intimacy and general activity

• Preprogrammed tendencies --> fixed action patterns
• Humans have very few fixed action patterns

Hull, 1943

• Biological imbalance --> Need --> Drive-Behavior
• Organism strive for homeostasis

• Behavior motivated by seeking stimulation for optimal arousal
• (incentives = non-biological stimuli or rewards)

• Expectations

• Judgments made about future events influence motivation
  
  • Ex. Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964)
• Expectancy, instrumentality and violence determine motivation in the workplace

• Attributions
• Judgments made about the causes of past outcomes influence future motivation
• Causes can be:
• Internal-External
• Stable-unstable
• Global-specific
• (attribution style produces optimism or pessimism

• Motivation arises from the innate tendency to want to satisfy our needs and maximize our potentials
• Self-actualization 

Three

Peripheral Response (Body):

• Month, Esophagus, and stomach

Central Response:

• Bloodstream montitored by Laberal Hypothalamus (LH)
• Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH)

Messages:

• "Eat when Hungry, Stop when no longer hungry"
• Encourages optimal weight
• A useful guide to optional weight is the body mass index:
• Weight (KG) = Height (m)^2

• Ancient Greeks: 4 Humors (Body Fluids)
• Sheldon (1942): Body Shape
• Sulloway (1996): Birth Order
• Myers - Briggs (1987): Type Indicator

1. Allport (1937): Cardinas, Central, and Secondary Traits
2. Cattell (1979): 16 source traits --> Surface Behaviors
3. Eysenck (1973):
• 3 Dimensions:
• Extraversion
• Neuroticism
• Psychoticism
4. Costa and Mc Crae (1999): The Big FIVE:
• Openness
• Conscientiousness
• Extraversion
• Aggression
• Neuroticism

• Body  Reaction (James/ Lange)
• Stimulus --> Behavior can alter emotion
• Support: Behavior can alter emotion
• Criticism: Emotional responses are often faster than bodily reactions

• Central Neural Process (Cannon/ Bard)
• Stimulus---> Emotion and Body Response
• Support: Emotion is often independent from body response
• Criticism: Emotion and body response are not always independent

• Cognitive Apprasial (Schacter & Singer)
• Stimulus + Body Response ---> Interpretation --> Emotion
• Support: Emotions can be mis-labelled
• Criticism: Some emotions happen without conscious awareness

• A stress response that becomes maladaptive
• Normal Stress Response:
• Hypothalamus (HPA Pathway) activites:
• During Stress: Sympathetic nervous system
• After Stress: Parasympathic nervous system

• Self-Serving Bias
• Making internal attributions for success but external attributions for failure.
• Fundomental Attribution Error (Rose,1997)
• Tendency to overstimate influence of dispostional factors and understimate influence of situational factors.
• Actor Oberver Effect (James & Nisbett, 1972)
• The tendency for people performing actions to make situational attributions and people watching actions to make dispostional attributions for the same behavior.

1. Foot-in-the Door
• Small request -> Big request
2. Doo-in-Foot
• Big request -> Small request
3. Low-Ball
• Changing the deal after agreement
4. Scarcity
• Limiting Supply

What is Informatial Influence?

• According that the behavior of others constitutes evidence about reality
• Response to ambiguity
• produces true cognitive change
• Sherif (1935) Norm Crystalization

• Following the expectation of others to gain social approve/ avoid dissapprovel
• Response to group pressure
• Does NOT produce cognitive change
• Asch (1952)

• Egoism:
• An ethical theory that treats self-interest as the foundation of morality.
• Altruism: 
• The belief in or practice of disinterested and selfless concern for the well-being of others.
• Collectivism: 
• The practice or principle of giving a group priority over each individual in it.
• Princpalism: 
• Principlism is a system of ethics based on the four moral principles of:
• Autonomy--free-will or agency,.

1. Do you know?
2. Is help needed?
3. Is it your responsbility?
4. Can you help?
5. Will you help?

• Chronic inability to sleep
• Linked with anxiety/excitement
• (Intrusive thoughts and feelings)
• Objective/subjective discrepancy

• Irresistible compulsion to sleep
• Disturbed sleep order (awake to REM directly)
• Emotional trigger
• Cataplexy
• Genetic Basis

• Temporary cessations of breathing causing frequent momentary awakenings
• Narrow of upper respiratory system

• Bodily arousal during sleep (NREM) initiated by unconscious brain processes
• (Note: during rem sleep the skeletal muscles have no tone making movement impossible)

• Emotional arousal during deep sleep (NREM) initiated by unconscious brain processes
• Occur in stage 4
• Experiencing emotion (terror) only
• Not nightmares
• Duration varies

• Excessive sleepiness during daytime
• Disturbance in circadian rhythm