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o A statement of the procedures used to define research variables.
o Example: Human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. |
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| o A testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory. |
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| Correlation- positive versus negative |
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o when one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.
o R=+0.37
o R=correlation coefficient- is a statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.
o +=indicates direction of relationship (positive or negative)
o 0.37=indicates strength of relationship (0.00 to 1.00)
o Correlation does not mean causation!! |
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| o is the design of all information-gathering exercises where variation is present, whether under the full control of the experimenter or not |
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| Longitudinal versus cross-sectional designs |
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o Cross-sectional studies (also known as Cross-sectional analysis) form a class of research methods that involve observation of some subset of a population of items all at the same time, in which, groups can be compared at different ages with respect of independent variables, such as IQ and memory.
o A longitudinal study is a correlational research study that involves repeated observations of the same items over long periods of time — often many decades. It is a type of observational study. Longitudinal studies are often used in psychology to study developmental trends across the life span, and in sociology to study life events throughout lifetimes or generations. |
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| o an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events. |
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| consistent resluts on one question or setting. verifies the study as they repeat it with different ppl groups |
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| o the perception of a relationship where no relationship actually exists. |
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| o “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon. After learning the outcome of an event, many people believe they could have predicted that very outcome. |
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o Critical thinking does not accept arguments and conclusions blindly.
o It examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions |
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o Stated that he could take any child from birth and raise them into any type of person he so chose.
Basically, he felt that nature had nothing to do with psychology. It was all about nurture |
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| What is the psychodynamic perspective? |
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o Focus: How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts.
o Sample questions: How can someone’s personality traits and disorders be explained in terms of sexual and aggressive drives or as disguised effects of unfulfilled wishes and childhood traumas? |
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o Focus: How we learn observable responses?
o Sample questions: How do we learn to fear particular objects or situations? What is the most effective way to alter our behavior, say to lose weight or quit smoking? |
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| What is the definition of psychology? |
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| o We define psychology today as the scientific study of behavior (what we do) and mental processes (inner thoughts and feelings). |
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| o Nurture works on what nature endows. |
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| o Wundt and psychology’s first graduate students studied the “atoms of the mind” by conducting experiments at Leipzig, Germany, in 1879. This work is considered the birth of psychology as we know it today |
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| o American philosopher William James wrote an important 1890 psychology textbook. Mary Calkins, James’s student, became the APA’s first female president. |
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| Cognitive neuroscience perspective |
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o Focus: How the body and brain enables emotions?
o Sample questions: How are messages transmitted in the body? How is blood chemistry linked with moods and motives? |
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o Focus: How we encode, process, store and retrieve information?
o Sample questions: How do we use information in remembering? Reasoning? Problem solving? |
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| o Dualism denotes a state of two parts. The word's origin is the Latin duo, "two" . The term 'dualism' was originally coined to denote co-eternal binary opposition, a meaning that is preserved in metaphysical and philosophical duality discourse but has been diluted in general or common usages. |
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o Cell body: life support center of the neuron
o Dendrites: branching extensions at the cell body. Receive messages from other neurons.
o Axon: long single extension of a neuron, covered with myelin sheath to insulate and speed up messages through neurons.
o Terminal branches of axon: branched endings of an axon that transmit messages to other neurons |
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| o A junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite, or the cell body, of the receiving neuron. This tiny gap is called the synaptic gap or cleft. |
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| o The brain’s sensory switchboard, located on tip of the brainstem. It directs messages to the sensory areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla |
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| o A neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories. |
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| o Consists of two lima bean-sized neural clusters linked to the emotions of fear and anger |
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o affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal.
o Undersupply liked to depression; Prozac and some other antidepressant drugs rais serotonin levels |
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| o refers to the brain’s ability to modify itself after some types of injury or illness. |
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| What are the 4 lobes of the brain? |
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| o Frontal (forehead); parietal (top to rear); occipital (back); temporal (side) |
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| o The set of complete instructions for making an organism, containing all the genes in that organism. Thus, the human genome makes us human, and the genome for drosophila makes it a common house fly. |
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| Heritability of personality, temperament, beliefs, physical characteristics, etc |
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| nature nurture interactions |
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| Individualism versus collectivism |
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o Individualist: if a culture nurtures an individual’s personal identity.
o Collectivist: group identity is favored. |
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| Prenatal hormone effects on brain development |
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| Genetic differences between males and females |
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Definition
o Authoritarian: parents impose rules and expect obedience.
o Permissive: parents submit to children’s demands
o Authoritative: parents are demanding but responsive to their children. |
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o The development of the brain unfolds based on genetic instructions, causing various bodily and mental functions to occur in sequence.
o Sets the basic course of development, while experience adjusts it. |
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o Authoritarian: parents impose rules and expect obedience.
o Permissive: parents submit to children’s demands
o Authoritative: parents are demanding but responsive to their children. |
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| What are Erik Erikson's social stages? |
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Definition
o Infancy (to 1 year). Trust vs. mistrust.
o Toddlerhood (1 to 2). Autonomy vs. shame and doubt.
o Preschooler (3 to 5). Initiative vs. guilt.
o Elementary School (6 years to puberty). Competence vs. inferiority.
o Adolescence (teen years into 20s). Identity vs. role confusion.
o Middle adulthood (20s to early 40s). Intimacy vs. Isolation.
o Middle adulthood (40s to 60s). Generativity vs. stagnation.
o Late adulthood (late 60s and up). Integrity vs. despair. |
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| o a time in the early stages of an organism's life during which it displays a heightened sensitivity to certain environmental stimuli, and develops in particular ways due to experiences at this time. If the organism does not receive the appropriate stimulus during this "critical period", it may be difficult, ultimately less successful, or even impossible, to develop some functions later in life. |
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| o developing the ability to understand another’s mental state |
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| What are Jean Piaget's cognitive stages? |
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o Sensorimotor Stage: babies take in the world by looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping. Do not grasp object permanence-objects that are out of sight are also out of mind.
Piaget believed children in this stage could not think. Recent research does not agree with him.
o Preoperational Stage: 2 years old to 6-7 years old. Too young to perform mental operations.
Egocentric-they cannot perceive things from another’s point of view.
o Concrete Operational Stage: 6-7 year olds grasp conservation problems and mentally pour liquids back and forth into glasses of different shapes conserving their quantities.
o Formal Operational Stage: about age 12, our reasoning ability expands from concrete thinking to abstract thinking. We can now use symbols and imagined realities to systematically reason |
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| Myelination in adolescents |
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| o During adolescence, neurons in the frontal cortex grow myelin, which speeds up nerve conduction. The frontal cortex lags behind the limbic system’s development. Hormonal surges and the limbic system may explain occasional teen impulsiveness. |
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| fluid versus crystallized intelligence |
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o Fluid: ability to reason speedily. Declines with age.
o Crystalline: accumulated knowledge and skills. Does not decline with age. |
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| What is the definition of sensation? |
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| o Sensations can be defined as the passive process of bringing information from the outside world into the body and to the brain. The process is passive in the sense that we do not have to be consciously engaging in a "sensing" process. |
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| What is the definition of perception? |
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| o Perception can be defined as the active process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting the information brought to the brain by the senses. |
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| o Sensory Adaptation occurs when sensory receptors change their sensitivity to the stimulus. This phenomenon occurs in all senses, with the possible exception of the sense of pain. |
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| o A type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state with an unwanted behavior. With this technique, temporary conditioned aversion to alcohol has been reported. |
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o Ivan Pavlov/John Watson
o Pavlov-first showed the effects of classical conditioning with dogs… salivating at the sound of a tone. The conditioned stimulus needs to occur a half a second before the unconditioned stimulus for acquisition to occur. |
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| unconditioned stimulus and response |
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o unconditioned stimulus unconditioned response
o Conditioned stimulus + unconditioned stimulus unconditioned response
o Conditioned stimulus Conditioned response |
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| conditioned stimulus and response |
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| o conditioned response=unconditioned response before the conditioning… but different because it is caused by something different. |
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Term
| reinforcers versus punishment |
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Definition
o Reinforcers: any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
Primary: an innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink.
Conditioned: a learned reinforce that gets its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer.
Immediate: a reinforce that occurs instantly after a behavior… a rat gets a food pellet for a bar press.
Delayed: a reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a wee.o Punishment: an aversive event that decreases the behavior it follows. |
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| o Involves operant behavior… a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli. |
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Definition
| o Learning by observing or imitating others. |
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| explicit and implicit memory |
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o Explicit: declarative
o Implicit: procedural |
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| recognition versus recall |
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o Recognition: the person must identify an item amongst other choices. i.e. a multiple choice test.
o Recall: the person must retrieve information using effort. i.e. a fill-in the black recall |
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| the role of encoding in memory |
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Definition
| o must encode in order to remember… forgetting something results from lack of encoding properly. |
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Definition
| o is the executive and attentional aspect of short-term memory involved in the interim integration, processing, disposal, and retrieval of information. Working memory tasks include the active monitoring or manipulation of information or behaviors. |
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Definition
o the ability to perceive, understand and use emotions. The test of emotional intelligence measures overall emotional intelligence and its four components.
Perceive emotion.
Understand emotion.
Manage emotion.
Use emotion. |
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| aptitude versus achievement tests |
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Definition
o Aptitude: necessarily biased in the sense that they are sensitive to performance differences caused by cultural differences.
Tests based on raw knowledge… IQ tests.
o Tests based on learned knowledge over a period of time |
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| critical periods for language |
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| o Our conscious awareness processes only a small part of all that we experience. We intuitively make use of the information we are not consciously aware of. |
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| o Intrinsic motivation comes from rewards inherent to a task or activity itself - the enjoyment of a puzzle or the love of playing. |
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| o Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the performer. Money is the most obvious example, but coercion and threat of punishment are also common extrinsic motivations. |
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| role of religion and service learning in teen sexuality |
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Definition
| o being actively religious tends to make a person less likely to be involved in extramarital sex. |
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| effect of stress on the body |
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Definition
| o stress is bad for the body… |
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| Maslow's hierarchy of needs |
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Definition
| o Abraham Maslow… certain needs have priority over others. First physiological needs, then safety needs, then belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, then last is self-actualization needs. |
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| difference between needs, drives, and incentives |
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Definition
o definition of drive: an aroused tension state… Drive reduction theory: a drive motivates an organism to satisfy the need.
o NeedDriveDrive-reducing behaviors (Homeostasis) |
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Definition
| o Personal control-whether we control the environment or the environment controls us. External locus of control-perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determines our fate. Internal locus of control-perception that we can control our own fate. |
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| What is the role of the amygdala in emotions? |
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Definition
| o it shows the differences in activation during emotions of anger and rage. Left/happy. Right/depressed. |
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| fear and unconscious emotions |
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Definition
o Psychoanalytic perspective of personality: FREUD. He encountered, as a neurologist, people dealing with nervous disorders=therapy.
o Unconscious : a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories… Freud used free association to tap into the unconscious.
o Id, Ego, & Superego: Id-unconsciously strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, operating n the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification (the devil).
o Ego-functions as the “executive: and mediates the demands of the id and superego (the man).
o Superego-provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations (the angel) |
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| What are criticisms of Freud's theory of personality? |
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Definition
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| person centered perspective |
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| big five personality factors |
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| o Agreeableness. Neuroticism. Openness. Extraversion. CANOE |
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| o When unable to avoid repeated adverse event an animal or human learns helplessness. |
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| What are some mood disorders? |
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| reliability of the DSM-IV-TR diagnoses |
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| o Biopsychosocial Approach… assumes that biological, socio-cultural, and psychological factors combine and interact to produce psychological disorders. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) to describe psychological disorders.DSM-IV |
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| o -Study used to show that psychologists and other doctors tend to label their patients and see evidence of mental illness. Said Rosenhan had thoughts grandiose because he kept saying he was a doctor… |
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| positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia |
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Definition
o Positive symptoms: the presence of inappropriate behaviors (hallucinations, disorganized or delusional talking.)
o Negative symptoms: the absence of appropriate behaviors (expressionless faces, rigid bodies.)
o **flat affect-showing no emotion at all |
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| systematic desensitization |
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Definition
| o Systematic desensitization is a type of behavioral therapy used in the field of psychology to help effectively overcome phobias and other anxiety disorders. More specifically, it is a type of Pavlovian therapy / classical conditioning therapy developed by a South African psychiatrist, Joseph Wolpe. To begin the process of systematic desensitization, one must first be taught relaxation skills in order to control fear and anxiety responses to specific phobias. Once the individual has been taught these skills, he or she must use them to react towards and overcome situations in an established hierarchy of fears. The goal of this process is that an individual will learn to cope and overcome the fear in each step of the hierarchy, which will lead to overcoming the last step of the fear in the hierarchy. Systematic desensitization is sometimes called graduated exposure therapy. |
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Definition
| o Teaches people adaptive ways of thinking and acting based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions. |
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| role of dopamine in schizophrenia |
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Definition
| o overload of dopamine… thorazine used to block the extra dopamine… can lead to tardive dyskinesia (also seen as a precursor for Parkinson’s) |
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Term
| general effect of antipsychotic, anti-anxiety, antidepressant, and mood stabilizing drugs |
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Definition
o BIPOLAR: Lithium. It moderates the levels of norepinephrine and glutamate neurotransmitters.
o Work by increasing the availability of norepinephrine or serotonin, neurotransmitters that elevate arousal and mood and appear scarce during depression.
o Prozac partially blocks the reabsorption and removal of serotonin from synapses. Selective-serotonin-reuptake-inhibiters (SSRIs). Side effects: dry mouth, weight gain, hypertension, or dizzy spells |
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Term
| obsessive-compulsive disorder |
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Definition
| o Persistence of unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and urges to engage in senseless rituals (compulsions) that cause distress. High metabolic activity in the frontal love areas are involved directing attention |
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o we accept responsibility for good deeds and successes more than for bad deeds and failures.
o Defensive Self-esteem is fragile and egotistic
o Secure Self-esteem is less fragile and less dependent on external evaluation. |
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Term
| fundamental attribution error |
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Definition
| o The tendency to overestimate the impact of personal disposition and underestimate the impact of the situation in analyzing the behaviors of others leads to the fundamental attribution error. |
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Definition
| o The Asch conformity experiments were a series of studies published in the 1950s that demonstrated the power of conformity in groups. These are also known as the "Asch Paradigm". |
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| Stanley Milgram's studies |
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Definition
| o Study to see who would shock the patients… and how far they would go. Most went all the way. |
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| social facilitation effect |
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Definition
| o Stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others. |
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| o EX: Someone is mugged in the middle of a street and left there… no one calls the cops because they thought that someone else had. |
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