What is the raw data that we receive from the world around us called?

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Sensation

Think of the senses  (sight, sound, touch, taste and smell) as gates through which information about the world around comes in. 

Perception

Psychophysics

What is the smallest detectable level of a stimulus called?

Absolute Threshold

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What law states that the point at which we perceive an increase in a stimulus depends on the magnitude of the original stimulus? 

When exposed to a stimuli, such as sound, we may or may not notice an increase in that stimuli. When we do notice a change, what law does that perception illustrate?

In a noisy room, you must shout to be heard, but in a quiet room whispers are audible.

What rule explains why?

Weber's Law

JND

Just Noticible Difference

Just Noticable Difference 

JND

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JND

 Just Noticeable Difference

At a party, we hear the person we are speaking to, but do not notice the content of the conversations happening around us.

What is this an example of?

Camouflage

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When we focus on the white part of the image, we see a vase or urn, yet if we focus on the black we see silhouettes of faces.

What principal of perception is the designer playing with?

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Listening to a new song, a man focus on understanding the lyrics. Afterwards he realizes that he doesn't know if the song was accompanied by piano or guitar. What principle of perception is responsible?

Figure and ground

The lyrics became the figure and the music became the ground

No.

e.g. Viewing the image below, a 2 dimensional image, our perception of either a woman's face or a man playing a saxophone, has nothing to do with depth and everything to do with  figure and ground.

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The whole picture

Gestalt is a German word meaning "the essence or shape of an entity's complete form".

What principal of perception explains why some people see a woman in a looking glass and others see a skull?

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Figure and Ground

Some people notice the white skull first, so this becomes dominate. For others the dark areas are noticed and the woman becomes the area of focus or figure, making the skull the ground. 

Gestalt psychology says that we perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts, and that in order to perceive the whole we use laws of grouping.

What are the 5 kinds of grouping noted in Gestalt Psychology ?

Proximity

Continuity

Closure

Simplicity

Similarity

What gestalt rule of grouping does the image below illustrate?

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What rule of grouping allows us to judge whether people in a room are friends?

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Proximity

We will always make that same sense out of it.

(Assuming we remember it and have not learned a new sense or order to apply to it. )

What gestalt rule of grouping notes that our perception groups similar stimuli together?

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Similarity

We see the triangle because we grouped the circles together as a figure, and left the squares as the ground. 

What gestalt rule of grouping does this image illustrate?

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What gestalt rule of grouping does this image illustrate?

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What gestalt rule of grouping explains why, when given the picture below, we perceive a square, circle and triangle, rather than something that has the shape of the whole?

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Simplicity

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Which 3 environmental stimulus cues does this image illustrate?

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1. Relative Size

2. Height in the visual field

3. Linear Perspective

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What principal accounts for our ability to recognize that the size, shape and color of an object have not changed, even though lighting, angle and distance may make them appear to have changed?

Perceptual Constancy

Size

Shape 

Color

What principal accounts for the fact that we recognize the same figure in both photos, despite differences in the distance and angle from which the images were taken? 

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Perceptual Constancy

Specifically Size Constancy & Shape Constancy

What accounts for us recognizing all of these images as doors, despite the fact that the angle of the door has changed significantly?

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Perceptual Constancy

specifically

SHAPE CONSTANCY

 What accounts for us recognizing that a school bus is yellow/orange, no matter how dark or bright it is outside?

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Perceptual Constancy

Specifically Color Constancy

What part of perceptual constancy accounts for smaller cars having more accidents

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Size constancy

 We misjudge the car's distance because we assume it is the same size as a traditional car.

What stimulus cue did the painter use to tell us that the figures on the left are farther away than those on the right

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Relative Size

 The artist made the figure on the left smaller to indicate that they are further away.

Is depth perception

based on stimulus cues

 a function of our visual system or the environment? 

The environment

stimulus cues are our environmental cues to depth perception.

In this painting, "The Fever Van" the painter made the van  (and the line of people waiting for it) appear further away than the boy and the man with the cane. What stimulus cues did he utilize to tell us that the van is further way?

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Relative Size 

& 

Height in the Visual Field 

& 

Interposition

Oh, linear perspective as well. 

What stimulus cue tells us that the man and women on the right are in front of the subway entrance?

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Interposition

- because they are blocking part of the sign, we understand that they are in front of the sign. 

Relative Size

(an application of size constancy)

What stimulus cue accounts for the fact that objects at a distance appear smaller than those closer to us?

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What stimulus cue does this photograph illustrate

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What gestalt rule of grouping lets us perceive this image as a girl with a balloon?

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What environmental stimulus cue notes that parallel lines that are distant appear to converge towards a point on the horizon?

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stimulus cues

depth

they give us depth perception

What of the stimulus cues does this photo best represent

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We see greater detail in the faces closer to the photographer than we do in those that are further away. What stimulus cue does this illustrate?

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Texture gradient

What stimulus cue do the plants in this photograph illustrate?

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1. Relative Size
2. Height in the Visual Field
3. Interposition
4. Linear Perspective
5. Texture Gradient

Binocular Disparity

& Convergence

True or False

The environment and our body help us to perceive depth

True:

The stimulus cues are environmental and the bodily cues are functions of our bodies; both help us perceive depth.

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When the girl in the picture holds a pencil in front of her face and covers one of her eyes, and then the other, the pencil appears to jump. What bodily cue accounts for this?

Binocular Disparity

& Convergence

The closer one is to an object, the greater the eyes converge or turn inward in order to focus on the object. 

What is this phenomena called?

Convergence

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What bodily cue to depth perception does this image illustrate?

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Is consciousness:

A. Awareness of external stimuli
B. Our internal activity
C. Mental process outside of our awareness

D. All of the above

All of the Above

 What are the 4 levels of consciousness we learned about?

1. Conscious Level
2. Preconscious Level
3. Non-Conscious Level
4. Unconscious (Freud) or Subconscious Level

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When one is listening intently to a suggestion from their employer, they are on what level of consciousness?

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What level of consciousness are our conscious memories and stored knowledge on? 

They are on the preconscious level.

(Memories that we don't consciously remember aren't on the preconscious level. They are at the bottom of Freud's iceberg with shameful experiences.)

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Unconscious

or Subconscious

Normal waking consciousness is alert, actively engaged and focused in the here and now.

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Yes.

(this is sometimes called road hypnosis)

yup

(If you're not dead, you're in some state of consciousness)

You're at a social event, engaged in a conversation about education, someone says "Hey, what sign are you?"

What level of consciousness do you get this information from?

Yes. You're daydreaming. 

You go into the mountains to learn to meditate. You spend 10 days in silence focusing on moving your awareness around your body. Are you in an altered state of consciousness?

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Yes, very much. 

Is sleep an altered state of consciousness?

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Externally

There are 6 stages

Stage 0 

Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 4

&

REM

How many minutes of REM sleep do we get on an average night of sleep?

(7 hours is apparently the length of an average night of sleep)

Stage 1

Stage 1 is the lightest stage of sleep. 

Stage 0

You're not yet asleep. 

The 2 month old baby

REM time decreases as we age.

Nope

Our sleep cycles vary throughout the night and depending on how tired we are. Sometimes we'll go right from stage two to REM sleep and sometimes we'll get REM sleep after stage 4. In any case, it's not in order. Our handout says we go from 4 to 3, to 2, to 1, then enter REM but it's from 1988 and no current sources say that we go back as far as stage one. 

Stage 3

Stage 1 and 2 are relatively light. 

Stage 4 is the deepest sleep. 

REM sleep

Because our minds and internal organs are highly active but are muscles are extremely relaxed 

At what stage of sleep do we experience the most dreaming?

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Do we dream in color?

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Our teacher says there is no evidence

Current research says 80% of dreams are in color, but go with the "no evidence" for the test.

30-40 minutes

It's the one that's the most restful and the longest

Stage 2 is deeper than stage one and not as deep as stage three.

They get deeper as the number increases.

Four is the deepest.

10 -15 minutes

5-6 cycles

Electroencephalography (EEG) is the recording of electric activity along the scalp. What is this electrical activity like in REM as compared to Stage 1 (and wakefulness)

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They are the same

kinda

1. Jet lag

2. Working a night shift

How many years can you take off your life by significantly disrupting your circadian rhythm?

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When someone falls asleep suddenly in the middle of a conversation, they might be suffering from what sleep disorder?

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obviously not

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What is the disorder that makes those afflicted lack voluntary control over the onset of sleep?

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At what part of the sleep cycle do night terrors occur?

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They occur during

a rapid shift from stage 4 to the REM stage

Is it dangerous to awaken a sleepwalker?

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What is it called when we are able to control our dreams or are aware that we are dreaming?

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No.

Night Terrors occur in a non-REM state,

usually as a result of a rapid shift between stage 4 and REM

Children in general, and boys in particular

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No.

Sleeping walking occurs in a non REM state, usually stage 3 or 4

When is the mind the clearest and most open to suggestion?

Right before falling asleep and directly after we've woken up.

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Does sleep talking occur during dreams?

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No.

Sleepwalking occurs during a non REM state, usually stage 3 or 4

1. Story Read a quiet story

2. Activity Engage in a quiet activity

3. No TV Do not watch television

4. Design Routine Create nighttime routine

Think SAND like sandman, to help a child sleep without night terrors. 

Apparently not 

There are different opinions on this.  

This is from a Harvard University website: about half-way down the page 

http://healthysleep.med.harvard.edu/healthy/matters/benefits-of-sleep/why-do-we-sleep

In recent years, these ideas have gained support from empirical evidence collected in human and animal studies. The most striking of these is that animals deprived entirely of sleep lose all immune function and die in just a matter of weeks. This is further supported by findings that many of the major restorative functions in the body like muscle growth, tissue repair, protein synthesis, and growth hormone release occur mostly, or in some cases only, during sleep.

There is more information on the site.  

However, for the test, there is NO EVIDENCE

What do we call it when someone who has missed REM sleep "catches up" on that stage of sleep during the next subsequent sleep?

How many times more REM sleep does someone get during this catching up?

REM Rebound

Two times more REM sleep

1.Taking drugs/medications that interfere with sleep

2. Drinking Alcohol

3. Studying all night for a psych test 

How is sleep related to what we've learned during a given day?

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It STAMPS the LEARNING IN

-This theory proposes that sleep helps our brain organize, process and make sense of the information we take in during the day.

A Psychoactive Drug

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Tis.

(Spiders apparently agree)

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Depressants

How can we remember that

Barbituates

Alcohol and

Tranquilizers

are all depressants

With the acronym BAT

and these depressing images of bats[image] [image]getting drunk alone. 

Depressants

NaRcotics

StimUlants

HallucinoGens

Alcohol

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A hangover

Tranquilizers, which are depressants

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They make you feel tranquil or peaceful

Tranquilizers

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What kind of drug includes sleeping pills, sedatives, and quaaludes?

What type of drug are these?

Here is a clue:

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Sleeping pills, sedatives and quaaludes are all barbiturates. Barbiturates are depressants. 

Think of Barbie, on barbiturates, sleeping and relaxed.

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What type of depressant is prescribed for bed-wetting and epilepsy?

This type of drug is also a drug of choice for assisted suicide and lethal injection.

Barbiturates

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Our professor mentioned 6 areas of psychological  functioning effected by alcohol.

What are they?

attention

memory

perception 

judgment

control over actions

control over emotions

A man was drunk last night.

He wakes up in the AM (attention. memory)

without his PJs (perception, judgment) 

and finds he CCd (control of actions, control of emotions) his boss a lewd photo. He has no memory of doing this.

His attention, memory, perception, judgment, control of actions and control of emotions were all impaired. 

Tranquilizers

Tranquil + Drunk = Dead

Stimulants

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What category of drug are nicotine and caffeine in?

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Stimulants

What type of drugs make you feel energetic, euphoric and alert?

(not that anyone is trying to promote them, that's just the note we were given)

What kind of drug acts on the sympathetic branch of the Autonomic Nervous System increasing heart rate, blood pressure, energy and alertness, and decreasing appetite?

What type of drug are these?

Amphetamines 

(They are stimulants)

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Amphetamines

They're stimulants

 It may help to remember this image, as Ritalin and Adderall are commonly prescribed to children for ADD & ADHD. 

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Amphetamines

Ironically, these are the drugs used to treat hyperactivity because they apparently have a focusing effect on the mind of someone with ADD or ADHD

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Abuse of what stimulant leads to behaviors like those exhibited with paranoid schizophrenia, hyperactivity and narcolepsy?

Amphetamines

The paranoid schizophrenia like symptoms are called amphetamine psychosis.

Cocaine

Amphetamines can also lead to paranoia, but are not known for their ability to decrease pain.

What drug is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant?

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What do we call smokable cocaine?

Crack

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Cocaine

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What 3 drugs are made from the poppy plant?

List them in order of increasing potency.

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Opium

Morphine

Heroin

(all narcotics)

Amphetamines

Cocaine

Nicotine

Caffeine

note that all the stimulants have an "ine" sequence at the end. 

Which is more potent, heroin or morphine?

How much more potent is it?

Heroin is more potent

3 times more

Narcotics

 Narcotics are notoriously addictive, in part because of these qualities.

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Narcotics

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Morphine, for example, is widely used in hospice work because it's very effective for pain control and does not effect lucidity. It also does not matter if patients become dependent in this situation. 

Hallucinogens

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Hallucinogens

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This is usually associated with LSD

LSD  (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide)

is a synthetic form of ergot. 

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PCP

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Because it makes one insensitive to pain, PCP can lead to serious self-harm.

THC

Tetrahydrocannibinol

PCP

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Marijuana

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Marijuana

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Marijuana can be 10 times as harmful as a cigarette because it is held in the lungs for longer in order to create the desired effect. 

I'm not saying marajuana is good for anyone, but this is a point that is widely debated. 

What drug creates a reverse tolerance in users because it builds up in the body?

A reverse tolerance enables users to get the desired effect with less drug over time.

Marijuana 

(in pill form of course)

Ivan Pavlov

(Russian Physiologist)

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What form of learning is taste aversion?

e.g. When someone who once ate hotdogs and got ill, now feels ill at the sight or smell of hotdogs. 

Classical Conditioning

Note: Taste aversion, like all Classical Conditioning, is involuntary, no one has to punish us or reward us, we learn not to eat a food because it made us feel sick. 

What do we call the associations we make between two events in which one event is assumed to cause another event?

E.G. I drank coffee, I feel jittery, therefore the coffee made me feel jittery. 

Prepared Learning

We can think of it as pre-paired learning because we pair the two events

Classical Conditioning

specifically taste aversion

Unconditioned Stimulus

(UCS)

the unconditioned stimulus is the stimulus we do not have to be trained or conditioned in order to respond to.  

e.g. In Pavlov's experiment with the dog, Brains, the food, which naturally produces salivation, was the unconditioned stimulus

Unconditioned Response

In Pavlov's experiments with the dog Brains, the unconditioned response was salivation is response to food. An unconditioned response is untaught; it's automatic.

Neutral Stimulus

(NS)

In Pavlov's experiments with the dog Brains, the neutral stimulus was the bell.

Conditioned Stimulus

(CS)

In Pavlov's experiments with the dog Brains, the conditioned stimulus is the bell, which became associated with the food to the point where the bell alone could cause salivation. 

Conditioned Response

(CR)

In Pavlov's experiments (with the dog Brains) the conditioned response was salivation, specifically salivation in response to the bell (the CS).  

It is always a reflex, an involuntary live action

Response=Reflex

Unconditioned Stimulus- Loud Noise

Unconditioned Response- Fear/Startle Reflex

The neutral stimulus (bell) becomes the conditioned stimulus (bell) by being paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food).

The same. 

Once the neutral stimulus (bell) becomes the conditioned stimulus (bell) by being paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food), it elicits the same response (salivation) as the unconditioned stimulus. 

Stimuli Generalization

Conditioned to be afraid of a white rat, Little Albert inadvertantly became afraid of anything white and furry in appearance.Watson taught him that rats were frightening through classical conditioning (by pairing them with a loud noise). Albert generalized that anything white and furry was frightening. 

Discrimination

A cat responds to the sound of the can opener (CS) being used by running into the kitchen (CR) because it has paired the sound of the can opener with food (UCS).

If, over time, the can opener is not paired with feeding, and the cat stops responding to the sound of the can opener, what phenomena of classical conditioning has occurred?

Thorndike's experiments with cats in puzzle boxes led him to theorize that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences tend to be repeated and those that produce unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated.

What type of conditioning built off of this theory to understand and produce learning?

Operant Conditioning

built on Thorndike's work

(Thorndike called it Instrumental Conditioning)

B.F. Skinner

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Classical Conditioning- Involuntary

Operant or Instrumental Conditioning- Voluntary

Operant or Instrumental Conditioning

It's a form of negative reinforcement.

In the image below, a rat is learning to press a lever to obtain food, what is the operant in this situation, and what is the reinforcer?

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The operant (or behavior or response) that elicits an effect is pressing the lever.

The reinforcer is the food

Operant, Response

Response, Operant and Behavior may all be used interchangeably in operant conditioning. Remember ROB 

Think about ROB.

He gets pulled over by a cop and cries. The cop lets him go. The RESPONSE, OPERANT, & BEHAVIOR that ROB exhibited was crying. It made the unpleasant stimulus go away (the cop). When ROB goes home his wife is mad that he left the laundry out in the rainstorm. She shouts at him. He cries. His wife stops shouting at him. Again, the RESPONSE OPERANT & BEHAVIOR that ROB used worked to decrease the unpleasant stimulus.  

No.

A reinforcer is only a reinforcer once the behavior it is intended to reinforce increases. 

Immediately after the behavior.

(This is especially true in the initial stages of learning and with animals.)

A child in a store cries and as a result is given a toy, what kind of operant conditioning is taking place?

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Positive Reinforcement

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A man with a headache takes Tylenol and the symptoms of the headache goes away, the next time he has a headache he takes Tylenol again.

What type of operant conditioning has taken place?

Negative Reinforcement

The negative stimulus was math class, which was taken away as a result of the operant or behavior of pulling hair, therefore reinforcing that behavior.

Punishment

(pleasant stimulus was withdrawn, behavior decreased) 

According to our professor, in order for a punishment to be effective it must be two things.

What are those two things?

In order for a punishment to be effective it must be

1. Severe

2. Immediate

You feel bored and decide to go out with your friend Max. You have a great time and feel engaged and interested in life. The next time you are bored you go out with another friend, Irene, and end up feeling isolated and misunderstood. The following time you feel bored you call Max, not Irene.

What phenomena of operant conditioning occurred?

Discriminative Stimuli

You learn to respond to certain stimuli (friends in this case) and not others. 

A dog is trained to cover his eyes with his paws anytime his owner says "SLEEP". The owner's friend comes over and says, "I want to go to sleep." The dog performs the trick.

What phenomena of operant (instrumental) conditioning occurred?

Generalization

(Instead of only responding to the owner and the single word "sleep" the dog generalized that any person saying the word "sleep" indicated that he should preform the trick)

Shaping

A mother is trying to teach a child to use their potty chair. In order to create the desired behavior she rewards the child first for telling her when he is going potty, and then only when he sits on the chair, after a while, she only rewards the child if he sits on the chair with his diaper off. Eventually she rewards the child only for actually "going potty". What method of strengthening an operant did the mother use?

Shaping

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Partial

Because one does not "win" all of the time in any of these situations. 

The son's behavior. 

Partial reinforcement, which does not occur every time, is more resistant to extinction. 

Age & Mental Ability

A dog will need a different primary reinforcer than a five year old, and a five year old will need a different primary reinforcer than a 40 year old. 

A teacher gives his second grade students a star on a chart every time they bring in their homework. At the end of two weeks, anyone who has 8 or more stars on the chart gets to pick a treat to have after lunch. In this scenario, what are the stars?  

Biofeedback assists practitioners in controlling biological functions, such as their heart rate.

This practice runs counter to the dominate assumptions about what level of consciousness?  

Non-Conscious Level

Biofeedback provides a feedback loop that shows practitioners physiological functions, such as blood pressure, in real time. Changes in thinking, emotions and/or behavior result in corresponding physiological changes. Attending to the feedback allows practitioners to see these changes and eventually enables them to create these changes without the feedback. 

What American psychologist built a puzzle box for cats to escape from and is the credited with the origins of instrumental conditioning? 

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Edward Thorndike

A thorn is a thorn

A dike is a ditch

Imagine the laboratory cats breaking out of their puzzle boxes and taking revenge on Thorndike. They use the thorn as an instrument of puncture, and leave him in a ditch or dike.

(Morbid, yes, but the more bizarre the image, the more effective it is for memory.) 

What American psychologist is credited with expanding on Thorndike's work and developing the theories of operant conditioning?

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B. F. Skinner

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What Russian physiologist noted that when a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus, that neutral stimulus may come to illicit the same response as the unconditioned stimulus? He noted this by observing a dog named Brains. 

He is credited with founding what kind of conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov

Classical Conditioning

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Hallucinogens

Virtually all drugs effect neurotransmission, however, our teacher only mentioned that this was the means by which hallucinogens effect users.

A constant fraction of the original stimulus 

This basically means that the point at which we will notice a difference depends on (is a constant fraction of) the intensity of the original stimulus. 

In the in-class demo, our professor added a pencil to a pile of notebooks, this was not above the JND, therefore the student did not notice the pencil. However, if the student had only been holding a piece of paper (the original stimulus in this case), she would have noticed the pencil because, in relationship to the piece of paper, the pencil would have been heavier. 

Night terrors

Sleepwalking

PCP

LSD

Marijuana

1. Awareness of external events
2. Our internal activity
3. Mental Processes outside of our awareness 

Think of Freud's Iceberg, external events are usually conscious, internal activity could be considered preconscious, and mental processes outside of our awareness could be considered subconscious (or non-conscious).

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