agreeable people tend to be friendly and easy to get along with

basic tendencies are underlying personality traits

trait adaptations are the behavioural manifestations of the underlying personality traits. 

The point is that people can have very similar basic tendencies but they may display those tendencies with very different trait adaptations

There are low correlations among different behaviours believed to reflect the same trait. For example, a child that lies won't necessarily cheat.

Epstein believe Mischel was right in that personality traits aren't highly predictive of behaviour but personality traits are often highly predictive of Aggrgated behaviours (composites of behaviour averaged across many stiuations).

Mischel was right that personality traits don't predict behaviour in a single situation, but wrong in that they do predict behaviour trends

Behaviourists neglect the social learning theorists idea of observational learning --> much learning occurs from watching others

Reciprocal determinism --> a form of causation whereby personality and cognitive factors, behaviour, and environmental factors mutually influence each other, part of Bandura's social learning theory

A locus of control is the extent to which people believe reinforcers and punishers lie inside or outside of their control

Internal locus of control - believe that life events are due largely to their own efforts and personal characteristics

External locus of control - life events are largely a product of chance and fate

submerged psyche 

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Repression – motivated forgetting of emotionally threatening memories or impulses, triggered by anxiety

·      Childhood amnesia – inability to remember childhood prior to about age three and a half

Denial – motivated forgetting of distressing external experiences, most often observed in people with psychotic disorders

Regression – the act of returning psychologically to a younger, and typically simpler, safer age

Reaction-formation – transformation of an anxiety-provoking emotion into its opposite, homophobia example

Projection – unconscious attribution of our negative characteristics to others (ex. People who are paranoid want to hurt others, so they perceive others as wanting to harm them)

Displacement – directing an impulse from a socially unacceptable target onto a safer and more socially acceptable target  (ex. Punching bag rather than someone’s face)

Rationalization – providing a reasonable sounding explanation for unreasonable behaviours or failures

Intellectualization – avoiding emotions associated with anxiety-provoking experiences by focusing on abstract and impersonal thoughts (ex. When dealing with divorce, may figure out the statistics of how many marriages fail, instead of focusing on emotions)

Sublimation – transforming a socially unacceptable impulse into an admired goal (kid sets fires, grows up to be a firefighter)

Oral stage – psychosexual stage that focuses on the mouth, birth until 12 or 18 months, sucking, drinking or crying

Anal Stage – psychosexual stage that focuses on toilet training, 18 months to 3 years

Phallic Stage – psychosexual stage that focuses on the genitals, age 3 to 6

Latency Stage – psychosexual stage in which sexual impulses are submerged into the unconscious, 6 years to 12 years

Genital Stage – psychosexual stage in which sexual impulses awaken and typically begin to mature into romantic attraction toward others  

The organism - our innate genetic imprint, like the id but it is much more positive and helpful toward others

The self - our self-concept/set of beliefs about who we are

Conditions of worth - expectations we place on ourselves for appropriate and inappropriate behaviour

They are paper and pencil tests consisting of questions that respondents answer in one of a few fixed ways

MMPI ( Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)

Rorschach's consists of showing patients ten symmetrical inkblots and then they will say what it resembles.

the thematic apperception test requires examinees to tell a story in response to looking at ambiguous pictures. 

·       Statistical rarity

·      Subjective distress – is causing somebody pain

·      Impairment

·      Societal disapproval

·      Biological dysfunction 

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV)

·      List of symptoms and a decision rule

·      Biopsychosocial approach – acknowledges the interplay between biological, psychological and social influences

·      Utilizes prevalence of mental disorders and assesses patients along multiple axes (dimensions of functioning) (first.. main disorder, second mental disorder… 3^rd how well someone is function)

What was moral treatment?

What was deinstitutionalization?

Why did it occur?

approach to mental illness calling for dignity, kindness, and respect for the mentally ill

·      Dorothea Dix and Phillipe Pinel

1960s and 1970s government policy that focused on releasing hospitalized psychiatric patients into the community and closing mental hospitals

·      No follow up so people often end up homeless

This occurred because of chlorpromazine prescriptions 

Asylums – institutions for the mentally ill created in the fifteenth century

Asylum means a place of safety

Blood letting – believed that excess blood caused mental illness so they drained people of 40% of their total blood.

Snake pit – used to throw people into pits of snakes to scare away their mental illnesses 

the salem witch trials, exorcisms (from the demonic model)

Categorical model - model in which a mental disorder differs from normal functioning in kind rather than degree (ex: a woman is pregnant or she's not, this or that)

Dimensional model - model in which a mental disorder differs from normal functioning in degree rather than kind (ex: different heights, high, low, medium functioning)

legal defence proposing that people shouldn’t be held legally responsible for their actions if they weren’t of “sound mind” when committing them

Requires the components of the McNaughton rule

·      have not known what they were doing at the time of the crime

·      didn’t know what they were doing was wrong

1. do the defendants understand the charges against them

2. can defendants assist in their defence, for example by consulting a lawyer

Insight therapy- improvement occurs as a result of understanding the cause of mental disorder

Behavioural and cognitive therapies - don’t have to understand the cause to treat a disorder

likely to be warm and direct and tend to not contradict their patients, and choose the proper treatment for their clients

Systematic desensitization - patients are taught to relax as they are gradually exposed to what they dear in a stepwise manner

Flooding therapies - expose patients to images of the stimuli they fear for prolonged periods. in vivo flooding makes them come face to face with their fears

Aversion therapies - treatment that uses punishment to decrease the frequency of undesirable behaviours

List and briefly describe 2 types of cognitive therapies. 

stress inoculation training - therapists teach patients to prepare for and cope with future stressful life events

According to Beck, which one is most important in determining why someone gets depressed – thoughts or emotions?

Naturalistic observation - watching behaviour in real-world settings

Correlational studies - research design that examines the extent to which two variables are associated

Experiments - research design characterized by random assignment of participants to conditions and manipulation of an independent variable

Control of confounds

Cause and effect – random assignment  & manipulation of independent variable 

Reliability is a measure of consistency of measurement

validity is a measure of the extent to which a measure assessed what it purports to measure

internal validity - extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences from a study

external validity - extent to which we can generalize findings to real-world settings

Descriptive statistics - numerical characterizations that describe data

inferential statistics - mathematical methods that allow us to determine whether we can generalize findings from our sample to the full population

Central tendency (descriptive statistics)

(3 things)

Dispersion (descriptive statistics)

(3 things)

Dispersion is the measure of how loosely or tightly bunched scores are

Range - difference between the highest and lowest scores

Standard deviation - takes into account how far each data point is from the mean

Correlation coefficient - A number between −1 and +1 calculated so as to represent the linear dependence of two variables or sets of data.

Scatterplot - grouping of points on a two-dimensional graph in which each dot represents a single person's data

Range of correlation - goes from -1 to +1.... strength of the correlation is based on absolute value...negative just means a negative correlation for example as number of beers increases, score on psych exam goes down. 

Grammatical rules that govern how words are composed into meaningful strings

Imitation account - the idea that we learn language through imitation, can't be completely true because language is generative meaning that it allows an infinite number of unique sentences to be created by combining words in novel ways

Nativist account - account of language acquisition that suggests children are born knowing how language works

Social pragmatics account - suggests that particular aspects of the social environment help structure language learning. children learn the meaning of language through actions, expressions, gestures and other behaviours of speakers

General Cognitive Processing Account - proposes that children's ability to learn language is a result of general skills that children apply across a variety of activities

Mental age/Chronological age x 100 

mental age is the age corresponding to the average individual's performance on an intelligence test.

            Ratio IQ is better than raw IQ data because it enables you to compare individual to someone their own age 

How to look up a deviation IQ and why it’s better than Ratio IQ.

better because  After 16, scores on IQ do not change so the formula would mean everyone gets less intelligent as their chronological age increases.

Average IQ is 100, below average is 80, 120 is above

g (general intelligence)  - hypothetical factor that accounts for overall differences in intellect among people

s (specific abilities) - particular ability level in a narrow domain

fluid intelligence - capacity to learn new ways of solving problems

crystallized intelligence - accumulated knowledge of the world acquired over time

Sternber's triarchic theory of intelligence

analytic - ability to reason logically ("book smarts"), closely related to g

creative - ability to come up with novel and effective answers to questions and to solve problems

practical - also called tacit intelligence, ability to solve real world problems, "Street smarts", capacity to understand others

- Linguistic: speak and write well

- Logico-mathematical: use logic and math skills to solve problems, such as scientific questions

- Spatial: think and reason about objects in 3D space

- Musical- perform, understand, and enjoy music

- Bodily-kinesthetic: manipulate the body in sports, dance, or other physical endeavours

- Interpersonal: understand and interact effectively with others

- Intrapersonal: understand possess insight into self

- Naturalistic: recognize, identify, and understand animals, plants and other living things

people who had above average intelligence had above average physical health and were taller and heavier than individuals of the general population 

child prodigies do not burn out

slightly lower rates of mental illness and suicide in his group of Termites

men are more variable with their overall IQ scores than women

Women are better at some verbal tasks, arithmetic, detecting feelings in others

Men are better at tasks requiring spatial ability (ex: mental rotation tasks), geopraphy

Cognitive Development: study of how children learn, think, reason, communicate and remember

Social and Moral Development: the study of how infants establish bonds with caretakers and learn from social interactions

the strong emotional connection we share with those to whom we feel closest

1. Secure attachment (~60%)-child protest when parent leaves and is happy when parent returns

2. Insecure-avoidant attachment (15%-20%)- child ignores parent while parent is there, does not protest when leaves and ignores parent’s return

3. Insecure-anxious attachment (15%-20%)-child clings to parent while parent there, protests when leave and is difficult to settle when parent returns

4. Disorganized attachment (5%-10%)- no consistent strategy to deal with attachment to parent, will cling and turn away from parent, will appear dissociated at times, etc

Permissive - Lenient, affectionate, very little punishment

Authoritative - Support children, but set firm limits (fare best)

Authoritarian - Strict, show little affection, strong discipline

Uninvolved - Neglectful, ignore children (fare worst)