behavioral medicine

health psychology

stress

stress reaction

eustress

distress

fight or flight response

general adaptation syndrome

the way the body responds to stressful conditions

-alarm reaction

-stage of resistance

-stage of exhaustion

alarm reaction

stage of resistance

if stress continues, body starts to adapt

ex: starving people become lethargic to conserve energy

stage of exhaustion

catastrophes 

-unpredictable, large-scale events like an earthquake or tsunami

-depression and anxiety are especially likely reactions 

significant life changes

daily hassels

frustration

types of stressful life events

-catastrophes

-significant life changes

-daily hassels

-frustration

5 sources of frustration (in American life)

-delays

-lack of resources

-losses

-failure

-discrimination

Type A Personality

Type B Personality

hostility

immune system

-protects body from any foreign materials that may enter it

-stress lowers effectiveness of immune system function rapidly

coping

problem-focused coping

emotion-focused coping

uncontrollable threats

longitudinal studies of social support

effects of smoking

-coronary heart disease

-cancers of all types: lung, mouth, throat, etc.

-chronic bronchitis

-emphysema

-ulcers

Why do people smoke in the first place?

usually people start young when they want to impress friends. the media makes it look more attractive to young people

personal fable

adolescents consider themselves to be special; unique

leads to the belief that bad things wont happen to them

addictiveness of nicotine

-comparative to heroine & cocaine

-seconds after you inhale nicotine hits the brain where it causes the release of neurotransmitter that make you feel good

-quitting is difficult due to accessibility of cigarettes 

binge drinking

obesity

social consequences of obesity

-obese people seen by others as lazy, sloppy, lacking in self discipline, less sincere, obnoxious, and less friendly

-less likely to get hired for a job or married

Why do we like fatty & sweet foods?

personality

the psychoanalytic perspective

-first comprehensive theory of personality

-based on case studies from Freud's psychoanalytic practice

conscious 

thoughts/motives a person is aware of or is remembering

ex: short term memory

preconscious

thoughts/motives that one can become aware of easily

-ex: long term memory

unconscious 

free association

psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts. the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

the id

pleasure principle

seeks to minimize pain and maximize pleasure 

the id is based off this principle

the ego

reality principle

tries to forestall action until it has had a chance to perceive reality accurately, consider what has happened in the past, and make realistic plans in the future

-the ego is based off of this principle

the superego

our standards of right and wrong 

made up of conscience and ego ideal

morality principle

conscience

negative, punitive, and critical

ex: a parent telling you what to not do

ego ideal

positive aspirations

ex: you should give money to charity

Psychosexual stages of development

-oral stage

-anal stage

-phallic or oedipal stage

-latency stage

-puberty (genital stage)

oral stage

birth-12 to 18 months

baby must nurse to stay alive

also enjoys sucking on thumb, pacifier=autoerotic

fixation

no matter how far we have advanced beyond it, we maintain a lasting preoccupation with the pleasures and issues of the earlier stage

-produced by 'too much or too little'

the anal stage

12-18 months to 3 years

focus on retaining or expelling feces

anal expulsive

anal compulsive

phallic or oedipal stage

3-6 years

odipus/electra complex

castration anxiety

penis envy

Odipus complex

castration anxiety

fear of fathers jealousy, dealt with by spending time with the father and learning gender roles

-formation of the superego (wall put up b/c sexual feelings=castration anxiety)

Electra complex

penis envy

-girl feels incomplete

-seeks access to penis through father

-spends time with mother, learns female gender role

-weaker superego (not as afraid of boys, so not as moral)

the latency stage

6-puberty

regression of sexual and aggressive impulses

puberty (the genital stage)

puberty onward

reawakening of sexual impulses

get out of the house

defense mechanism

repression

basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and memories from unconsciousness

ex: when someone cant remember childhood sexual abuse

regression

individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage

ex: a child sucking their thumb again when going to a new school

reaction formation

ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses to their opposites

ex: starting to hate someone you love, who doesn't love you back

projection

people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

ex: people who cheat on their spouses often believe their spouses are cheating on them

rationalization

offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real reasons for one's actions

ex: deciding you can cheat on taxes because you didn't owe that much money anyway

displacement

shifting sexual or aggressive impulses towards a more acceptable or less threatening object or person

ex: mother scolds her child who then walks across the room and pours a glass of milk on the cat

Neo-Freudian

agreed with Freud in many respects but differed on 2 important issues:

-more importance to conscious thoughts/motives

-less concerned with sexual and aggressive impulses 

Adler's Theory

striving for superiority

inferiority complex

feelings of incompetence & worthlessness left over from infancy

-can develop if success is not found when striving for inferiority

Jung's Analytic Psychology

believed there was more to unconscious than Freud theorized

-collective unconscious

-archetypes

collective unconscious

archetypes

animus

masculine side of female

ex) warrior female characters

anima

feminine side of male

ex) manipulative male character

shadow

unconscious dark side of our personality

ex) often represented by the devil

Horney's feminine psychology

-big influence on feminism

-womb envy

-unlike Freud who cited biology to explain differences between male and female personality, Horney argued for a societal and cultural explanation 

Rorschach Inkblot Test

examinee is asked to look at bilaterally symmetrical inkblots and describe what they see in as much detail as possible

-lacks both reliability and validity 

Thematic Apperception Test

examinee is asked to look at a picture and make up a story to explain it

-lacks both reliability and validity

Humanistic Theories

Self-Actualization

self-concept

unconditional positive regard

Gordon Allport & traits

Raymond Cattell & traits

factor analysis

Hans and Sybil Eyenck & traits

personality is a relationship between two traits

-introvert/extrovert

-emotional stability/instability

the "big five" model

-extraversion

-agreeableness

-conscientiousness

-openness to new experiences

-neuroticism (emotional stability)

Personality Inventories

AKA Objective Tests

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

most widely researched and clinically used self-report personality test. the examinee is presented with a series of affirmative statements and asked to answer true, false or cannot say

-designed to identify lie, validity, and correction score

-empirically derived

Lie Score

indicates you are lying to make yourself look good

-ex: i like every single person i meet

validity score

indicates a careless or random response pattern

-similar questions worded slightly differently

correction score

empirically derived

lack of explanation

situational determinants

social-cognitive perspective

reciprocal determinism

Bandura personality is shaped by interaction between thoughts, behavior, and environment

-ex: if you believe you cant pass a class you wont try as hard

external locus of control

internal locus of control

Assessing the social-cognitive perspective

ideal self

feared self

people with high self esteem

feel happier, sleep better, conform less, persist at difficult tasks, experience less loneliness and have better social experiences

-unclear whether these benefits are the result of self esteem or if self esteem results from these outcomes

self serving bias

the readiness to perceive oneself favorably

-people accept responsibility more readily for good deeds than for bad

-most people see themselves a better than average

psychological disorder

deviant

differing from the norm of the accepted standards of psychology

-varies by culture, context & time

trephining

Hippocrates' view of psychological disorders

The Four Humors

a traditional theory of psychology in which the state of health depended on a balance of the four elemental fluids

-blood-air-sanguine

-yellow-bile-fire

-phlegm-water-phlegmatic

-black bile-earth-melancholic

blood-air-sanguine

yellow bile-fire-choleric

phlegm-water-phlegmatic

black bile-earth-melancholic

Phillipe Pinel

became director of Bicêtre Hospital in Paris; advocated a medical model of mental illness

-led to better treatment of mentally ill

The Biopsychosocial Model of Mental Illness

Medical Model of Mental Illness

biological factors

psychological factors

sociocultural factors

way of looking at mental disorders in relation to age, gender, ethnicity, and other social and cultural factors 

-ex: women more likely to be depressed than men

diathesis stress approach

views psychological disorders as arising when a predisposition for a disorder combines with sufficient amounts of stress to trigger symptoms

-ex: you may have "alcohol gene" but may not show signs until something triggers it

anxiety disorders

psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety, or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety

-when anxiety becomes and excessive, irrational dread of everyday situations

generalized anxiety disorder

chronic, uncontrollable, and excessive worry not focused on any particular object or situation

-physical symptoms: fatigue, headaches, muscle tension, muscle aches, difficulty swallowing, etc.

panic disorder

sudden and inexplicable attacks of intense fear; symptoms include difficulty breathing, heart palpitations, feelings of impending doom

-not everyone who experiences panic attacks will develop panic disorder

comorbidity

phobia

intense, irrational fear and avoidance of a particular object or situation

-three main categories: agoraphobia, simple phobias, social phobias

agoraphobia

simple phobias

social phobia

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

characterized by recurrent, unwanted thoughts (obsessions), and/or repetitive behavior (compulsions)

-performing the compulsions provides only temporary relief and not performing them increases anxiety

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

-usually appears within 3 months of the trauma, but sometimes the disorder appears later

-intrusion

-avoidance

-hyperarousal

intrusion

avoidance

hyperarousal

explaining anxiety disorders: the learning perspective

-fear conditioning

-observational learning

fear conditioning

observational learning

Explaining Anxiety Disorders: the Biological Perspective

-natural selection (AKA biopreparedness):easier to fear snakes, dark, etc.

-genes:some people may be genetically predisposed to high levels of anxiety

-the brain:GAD, panic attacks, compulsions are associated with increased activity in parts of the brain involved with impulse control and habitual behaviors

dissociative disorders

dissociative identity disorder

presence of two or more distinct personality systems in the same individual at different times

-it has been suggested that many cases of DID are actually bi-products of the therapy process

personality disorders

antisocial personality disorder

(formerly called psychopath or sociopath) characterized by a lack of conscious; gets worse with therapy b/c they learn to manipulate people

-3 symptoms seen in childhood: firesetting, bedwetting, cruelty to animals

anhedonia

dysthymic disorder

bipolar disorder

AKA manic depressive illness

mania

hypomania

Genetic Influences of Mood Disorders

Norepinephrine 

serotonin

neural activity

the sociocognitive perspective of mood disorders

depressed people see bad events as:

stable: situation will last forever

global: it will ruin everything in my life

internal: its all my fault

schizophrenia 

group of psychotic disorders involving major disturbances in perception, language, emotion, thought, and behavior

-withdraw from people easily

perceptual symptoms of schizophrenia

hallucinations

language and thought disturbances in schizophrenia

-words lose their meanings, logic is impaired, and thoughts may be disorganized or just bizarre

-word salad: a jumble of extremely incoherent speech

-neologisms: made up words

-delusions

paranoid delusions

delusions of grandeur

delusions of reference

emotional disturbances of schizophrenia

behavioral disturbances of schizophrenia

unusual actions that may have special meaning

-ex: tics, pacing, rocking

-some may be result of medicine

-cataleptic; waxy flexibility

cataleptic

dopamine overactivity in schizophrenics

abnormal brain activity and anatomy in schizophrenics

-enlargement of ventricles (fluid filled cavities)

-decreased size of certain brain regions

-decreased metabolic activity in certain brain regions

genetic factors of schizophrenia

-runs in families

psychotherapy

psychoanalysis

method of psychotherapy that seeks to help clients gain insight by recognizing and understanding unconscious thoughts and emotions

-five main techniques: free association, dream analysis, analyzing resistance, analyzing transference & interpretation

free association

dream analysis

ego does not defend well against urges of unconscious during sleep

-manifest content: immediate content of dream

-latent content: the "true" meaning of the dream

analyzing resistance

analyzing transference

interpretation

psychodynamic therapy

modern form of psychoanalysis that emphasizes internal conflicts, motives and unconscious forces;

several things are different-- briefer, face-to-face, less emphasis on unconscious and past, more directive

humanistic therapies

goal is to maximize personal growth by adjusting the client's emotional reactions

-focuses on: the present and future, conscious rather than unconscious, taking responsibility for one's actions instead of searching the past for reasons, promoting growth instead of "curing illness"

-use term 'client' instead of 'patient'

Carl Rogers and client-centered therapy

allows the client to decide what to talk about, without direction, judgement, or interpretation from the therapist

four main aspects:

-empathy

-unconditional positive regard

-genuineness

-active listening

unconditional positive regard

genuineness

AKA authenticity

active listening

behavior therapies

Exposure Therapies

Systematic Desensitization

virtual reality exposure therapy

Aversive Conditioning

associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)

ex:antabuse- ethical? looks at symptom, not original problem

operant conditioning

token economy

operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats

-often used in institutional settings 

cognitive therapies

Beck's cognitive therapy

anxiety and depression caused by:

-errors in logic (if i fail this will ruin my life)

-false beliefs (thinking your friends really dont like you, they just pity you)

-thoughts that minimize personal achievement (thinking you got lucky on an exam instead of recognizing that you did well because you studied)

cognitive-behavior therapy

group therapy

advantages of group therapy

-see how clients interact, judge social skills

-realize others have same problems

-boost self confidence/ self-acceptance of others

-clients can learn from one another

-may make people more willing to share feelings

family therapy

treats the family as a system; views individual's unwanted behavior as influenced by or directed at other family members; attempts to guide family members towards positive relationships and improved communications

*goal-- help individual problems and create a more harmonious atmosphere

couple's therapy

focuses on improving communication between partners

-every couple argues-- but the way you argue makes a difference

culture in psychotherapy

-clients in the US are working in an individualistic culture

-clients who have immigrated from Asian cultures may experience difficulties relating to therapies that put the individual in primary focus

biomedical therapies

psychopharmacology

Neuroleptics AKA antipsychotics

drugs that relieve the symptoms of severe disorders such as schizophrenia

-difficult to determine proper dosage

-many older drugs led to tardive dyskinesia which led to noncompliance

-newer drugs inc. risk of obesity & diabetes

antianxiety drugs

minor tranquilizers that lower the activity of the CNS, allowing patients to feel calmer and less anxious

-problems: they don't treat underlying issues; can cause dependency

antidepressants

drugs that relieve depression; also prescribed for anxiety disorders

-four main types:

tricyclics

MAOIs

SSRIs

atypical antidepressants

tricyclics

Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs)

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors

atypical antidepressants

How might antidepressants temporarily increase the risk of suicide?

mood-stabilizing medications

Electroconvulsive therapy

brief electrical shock administered to the brain, usually to reduce depression that does not respond to drug treatments

-produces convulsions and sometimes memory loss

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation

weak electric currents are induced in the tissue by rapidly changing the magnetic fields

-avoids seizures and memory loss produced my ECT

-apparently useful for schizophrenia, depression; need more data

psychosurgery

surgical procedures that destroy tissues in the small regions in the brain in an effort to threat psychological disorders

-theory behind it is destroying parts of the frontal lobe disrupts the emotional reactions in disturbed people

prefrontal lobotomy

drill two holes in forehead, introduce a small metal instrument that severs the frontal lobe from the back of the brain

-in most cases you can still talk, just very calm

transorbital lobotomy

social psychology

attribution

attribution theory

dispositional attribution

decide cause of persons behavior is something about him or her

ex: he didnt apologize because hes a jerk

situational attribution

decide cause of person's behavior was something about a situation

ex: he didnt apologize because its crowded in here and he didnt notice

fundamental attribution error

perceptual salience

what we can easily perceive with our senses

-leads us to believe the a person is the sole cause of their behavior and not the situation

confomity

social norms

injunctive norms

behaviors seen as being approved by other people (what youre supposed to do)

-ex: youre not supposed to cheat on your spouse

descriptive norms

how other people are actually behaving

-ex: a lot of people cheat

explicit norms

written or spoken openly

-ex: laws, ten commandments

implicit norms

not openly stated

-ex: dont talk to the guy next to you while using a urinal

confederate

Normative Social Influence

-desire to be liked or accepted by other people

-fundamental human need to belong to social groups

-will happen even in a group of strangers

Social Influence & Culture

Informational Social Influence

using other persons as guidelines esp when you dont know what is going on

-ex: when a group of people run by screaming you will probably follow

Reference Groups

people we want to conform to because we like and admire them and want to be like them

-ex: little brother looking up to older sibling

Negative Referent Power

obedience

social facilitation

stronger responses on simple or well learned tasks in the presence of others

-increased motivation

social inhibition

sometimes the presence of others inhibits one's performance

-increased arousal from others impedes performance

social loafing

cross-cultural studies of loafing

found fairly universal tendency toward social loafing

-greater in individualistic cultures

Deindividuation

sometimes people seem to lose themselves in a crowd and act differently from how they would if they were alone

-also called social contagion (mob behavior is infectious)

-increases when individuals are anonymous and as size of group gets larger

stereotype

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behaviors toward the groups that are the target of prejudice

-people in the US are less overtly prejudice on the basis of race in sex

prejudice

scapegoat theory

categorization

stereotyping is merely a way we have of simplifying how we look at the world

-we minimize cognitive efforts by developing some meaningful, accurate attitudes about some topics, and simple, sketchy beliefs for other topics

vivid cases

just-world phenomenon

we tend to think that people get what the deserve

-ex: poor people must have done something to become poor; women who were raped were somehow asking for it

social learning view

realistic conflict

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

-inherited tendencies: helps males get mates and females protect their young

-runs in families

defensive aggression

heightened aggressiveness to stimuli that re not usually threatening or a decrease in the responses that normally inhibit aggression

-due to damage to the limbic system

testosterone & aggression

men have about 25 times the amount of testosterone that females have and are more aggressive

-levels in men peak from the late teens to the mid-20's which is also when aggression is the highest

aggression and culture

individualistic cultures tend to show more violence than collectivistic cultures

-our culture also teaches us about aggression: men not allowed to hit women, fights more acceptable in a bar than in church, etc. 

frustration

frustration-aggression hypothesis

generalized arousal and excitation transfer

environmental influences on aggression

-hot temperatures equals more violence

-air pollution, unwanted uncontrollable sound, and overcrowding also increase the risk of aggression

prosocial behavior

a helpful action that benefits other people without necessarily providing any direct benefits to the person performing the act

ex: running into a burning building to save a stranger

altruism

bystander effect

diffusion of responsibility

ambiguity in the interpretation of the situation

evaluation apprehension

five steps in deciding to help in an emergency

1. noticing the emergency
2. interpreting situation as an emergency
3. assuming it is your responsibility to help
4. knowing what to do 
5. making the decision to help- risk analysis