Term
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Definition
| The study of behaviour and mental processes. Psychology has structure like all sciences. |
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Term
| What are the five aspects of Human Functioning? |
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Definition
1. Overt Actions/ behaviour - observable behaviours or measurable behaviours (walking/hand movements)
2. Social relationships - the behaviours that actually define relationships (Ex. Student and Instructor; what happens between the two)
3. Mental Processes- how we think and process information (what are people thinking about)
4. Emotional Response - cause physiological reactions (Fear)
5. Physiological Reactions - the physiological responses or bodily responses (Stress responses such as heart rate) |
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Term
| What are the three key principals of a science? |
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Definition
1. Objectivity
2. Accuracy
3. Healthy Skepticism |
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Term
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Definition
1. Excludes anecdoctal reports (really describing what is happening; not scientific)
2. Get rid of preconceived ideas during research
3. Go into situations with an open mind |
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Term
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Definition
1. Gather information in precise ways
2. Helpful to outline a head of time |
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Term
| What is healthy skepticism? |
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Definition
1. Keep an open mind.
2. Look for repetition of results (so others can replicate the study and get similar results)
3. We can then start theories. |
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Term
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Definition
| A theory is a collection of interelated ideas and facts that we use to predict and explain behaviours. |
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Term
| What are the six steps of the scientific method? |
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Definition
1. State the problem.
2. Develop a hypothesis.
3. Design a study.
4. Data collection and analysis.
5. Replication of results.
6. Drawing conclusions and reporting results. |
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Term
| What are sources of psychological diversity? |
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Definition
1. Race - a person's ancestry and heritable traits (genetically determined)
2. Ethnicity - the common traits of people (culture, religion or language based)
3. Culture - reflects the racial and ethnic background of a person.
4. Class - can be based on wealth or education.
5. Gender - either female or male
6. Exceptionality - refers to a person's disability; differences in a person's environment or personal being. |
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Term
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Definition
| Gall measured the bumps on the head. |
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Term
| What are the four main perspectives developed in Psychology? |
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Definition
1. Structuralism
2. Functionalism
3. Gestalt
4. Psychoanalysis |
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Term
| Who was the first scientist/researcher to use the scientific method or consider psychology a science? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who brought Wundt's work to an English speaking world? |
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Definition
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Term
| What does structuralism focus on? Who studied structuarlism? |
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Definition
1. Focuses on the immediate conscious experience. Behaviour analyzed into basic parts or structures.
2. Wundt and Titchner |
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Term
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Definition
| Person's description of how she is thinking and feeling. Its used to examine conscious experience. |
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Term
| What is functionalism? Who studied it? |
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Definition
1. Studies how and why the mind functions; why something happens; felt that consciousness was continuous & evolving.
2. William James |
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Term
| Who studied Gestalt psychology? What is Gestalt psychology? |
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Definition
1. Wertheimer, Koffka, and Kohler
2. Argued that conscious experience is more than the sum of individual parts. You must examine the TOTAL experience. |
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Term
| Who studied psychoanalysis? What is it? How can unconscious motives be studied? |
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Definition
1. Sigmund Freud
2. Unconscious mental processes direct behaviour. Childhood experiences influence adult behaviour.
3. Free Association and Dream Analysis |
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Term
| What are the 8 modern views of psychology? |
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Definition
| Behaviourism, Humanistic Perspective, Cognitive Perspective, Biopsychology, Evolutionary Psychology, Sociocultural Perspective, Feminist Psychology, and Eclecticism. |
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Term
| Who studied behaviourism? What is it? Who are two people that studied behaviourism with applications? |
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Definition
1. John Watson
2. Rejected the study of consciousness. Argued that all behaviour represents learned responses to stimuli; focuses on overt behaviour.
3. Pavlov - Classical Conditioning - his dogs and ringing a bell near supper.
Skinner - Stimulus Response - Teaching a bird how to play piano with a reward; pecking the keyboard earns a reward. |
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Term
| What is a type of behaviourism therapy? |
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Definition
| Therapy consists of replacing dysfunctional behaviour with appropriate behaviour through learning. Another example is John Watson and Little Albert. |
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Term
| What is humanistic perspective? Who studied it? |
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Definition
1. Emphasizes on the innate goodness of people and free will.
2. Rogers and Maslow |
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Term
| Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is based on what type of modern psychology? |
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Definition
| The Humanistic Perspective |
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Term
| What is Self-Actualization? Which modern psychology perspective is it based from? |
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Definition
1. People strive for psychological growth and self-fulliment
2. Humanistic Perspective |
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Term
| What is Cognitive psychology? Who studied it? |
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Definition
1. Focuses on mind processes including perception, memory and thinking. People engage in behaviours because of ideas and thoughts. Therapy examines how negative cognitions are influencing behaviour.
2. Bandura, Ellis, and Beck |
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Term
| Which perspective of modern psychology involves therapy examining how negative cognitions are influencing behaviours? |
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Definition
| 1. Cognitive Psychology - If you think you will fail an exam, you will. |
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Term
| What is Biopsychology? Who studied it? What type of therapy is available? |
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Definition
1. Examining how the brain controls behaviour.
2. Hebb, Chomsky, and Ghottesman
3. Therapy often involves medication - antidepressants |
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Term
| Which type of modern psychology would use a lobotomy as therapy in older days? |
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Definition
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Term
| Who's work is evolutionary psychology based upon and what is it? |
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Definition
1. Charles Darwin
2. Certain human behaviour is innate (Encoded into genes); Behaviour that helps a species adapt will be passed on through generations. Anything damaging will be weeded out. |
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Term
| Who created the Sociocultural Perspective? What is it? What are examples? |
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Definition
1. Bruner and Broffenbrenner.
2. Emphasizes on social and cultural influences on behaviour.
3. Social - the study of rules, roles, groups and relationships.
Cultural - the study of cultural norms, values and expectations. |
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Term
| Who studied Feminist psychology? What is it? |
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Definition
1. Gilligan
2. Analyzes the influence of social inequalities on gender relations and on the behaviour of the two sexes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Combination of many theories, facts and techniques for therapeutic change. |
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Term
| What are the three things that make psychology research scientific? |
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Definition
1. Skepticism
2. Objectivity
3. Accuracy |
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Term
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Definition
| Keeping an open mind to all the possibilities of a situation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Evalutating your information w/o bias |
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Term
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Definition
| Precision/Reliance on empirical evidence. |
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Term
| What is a confirmation bias? |
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Definition
| The tendency to look for or only pay attention only to information that confirms one's own belief; confirming our own bias. |
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Term
| What is an operational definition? |
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Definition
| Define what our main objectives mean. |
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Term
| What is the difference between the experimental group and the control group? |
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Definition
| The experimental group recieves the independent variable. The control group recieves the Placebo(the comparison group). |
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Term
| How is group equivalence assured? |
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Definition
| Random assignment of participants to groups. |
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Term
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Definition
| Variables are conditions that are subject to change across people (any event or characteristic existing in more than one state)- Gender, age |
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Term
| What is an indepedent variable? What is a dependent variable? |
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Definition
1. Anything controlled by the experimenter. Such as age and gender.
2. What is being measured; things like amount of violence, type of violence or type of medication, how much time... |
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Term
| What are experimentor effects? |
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Definition
| Unintended changes in a subject's behaviour due to cues inadvertently given by the experimenter. Examples are body language, image; non verbal language. |
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Term
| What are strategies to eliminate experimentor effects? |
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Definition
| The use of sinlge and double blind studies. Single blind studies are when the experimenter knows whose in each group but the subjects do not. In double blind studies, neither the experimenter or the the subject knows who is in which room. |
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Term
| What is the statistical significance or difference? |
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Definition
| The difference between groups is not due to chance. |
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Term
| How do you evaluate the findings of your study? |
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Definition
| Using the statistical significance and correlation coefficients. |
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Term
| What are correlation coefficients? |
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Definition
| Statistical values calculated to determine the degree of relationship between variables. |
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Term
| Do correlations show causation? What is an example? |
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Definition
1. NO, correlations do not show correlation.
2. An example would be that areas affected by poverty also have higer levels of crime. We cannot say that poverty causes crime. |
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Term
| What are non-experimental studies? What are types? |
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Definition
1. Non-experimental methods can provide descriptive information about real life.
2. Questionnaire/ Survey, Interviews, Case Study, and Naturalistic Observation. |
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Term
| What are four critical issues surrounding research of humans? |
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Definition
1. Confidentiality
2. Informed consent. - children cannot give consent.
3. Minimize Discomfort- ethically researcher is responsible for any harm.
4. Debriefing - participants are informed about the true nature of the study; if deception occurred, now is the time to inform participants. |
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Term
| Why do we use animals in research? Several reasons. |
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Definition
1. To conduct basic research.
2. To discover practical applications.
3. To study issues that cannot be studied experimentally with human beings. - less ethical issues
4. To clarify theoretical questions
5. To improve human welfare. |
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Term
| What is wrong with using animals in research? What must be determined before a study begins? |
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Definition
1. Results can not always be generalized to apply to humans. Something that works for mice, may not work for humans always.
2. How many people will be helped by the study; does it outweigh the risks? |
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Term
| What is the difference between nature and nurture? |
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Definition
1. Nature is the biological factors.
2. Nurture is the environmental factors such as family experiences and conditioning (learning). |
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Term
| What is evolutionary psychology? |
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Definition
| Studies how the brain has adapted and changed over time. Every change the brain goes throguh serves the purpose of survival. |
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Term
| When does an adaptatio occur? |
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Definition
| Occurs when a trait is increased in a population. |
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Term
| Evolutionary psychologists recognize that behaviour occurs within a ______ or ______ context. |
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Definition
1. Cultural
2. Environmental |
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Term
| What behavioural determinism suggest? |
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Definition
| That evolution fully determines behaviour. |
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Term
| Do evolutionary psychologists support Behavioural Determinism? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the Epigenetic Framework? |
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Definition
| Believes that three factors influence each other. The factors are Environment, Behaviour, and Gene Experession. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Genetic traits are controlled by _____________. |
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
| Full set of genes in each cell of an organism (with the exception of sex cells such as sperm or egg cells) |
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Term
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Definition
| A person's genetic makeup which is fixed at conception. |
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Term
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Definition
| A person's observable characteristics. An example is eye color. |
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Term
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Definition
| Always visible if inherited. |
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Term
| What are recessive genes? |
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Definition
| Visible only if both members in the gene pair are recessive. |
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Term
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Definition
| Descriptive statistic of a trait in a particular population such as depression, height, etc. The portion of individual differences attributable to genetics (ranges 0-100). |
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Term
| Do heritability estimates apply to individuals? |
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Definition
| No. They apply only to variations within a group. |
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Term
| What is an example of Concordance? |
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Definition
What percent of the time do twins both show a trait?
High concordance range disorders include schizophrenia and autism. (ranges from 0-100%) |
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Term
| Heredity and environment always interact to produce ____________________. |
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Definition
| the unique mixture of qualities that make a human. |
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Term
| Psychological diversity is _________. |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What does a neuron do? What is a neuron? |
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Definition
1. Transmits electrical signals throughout the body.
2. The basic unit of the nervous system |
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Term
| What does the Nervous System provide? |
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Definition
| Communication highway of the body; any signals transmitted happen through the nervous system. |
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Term
| What are the three basic types of neurons? |
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Definition
1. Sensory Neurons - carry sensory messages to the brain; sensory messages= senses.
2. Motor neurons - carry messages from the brain to the muscles of the body.
3. Interneurons - connect neurons into networks. |
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Term
| Sensory neurons are to ______ neurons, as, motor neurons are to ______ neurons. |
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Definition
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Term
| Most of the neurons in the brain and spinal cord are what type? |
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Definition
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Term
| When touching a strong stimulus, like a stove, which neurons carry signals from the hand to the spinal cord? |
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Definition
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Term
| Which neurons carry signals from the brain and the spinal cord to the muscles? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the three structures of the neuron? |
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Definition
1. Cell body- manufactures the transmitter substance used by a neuron to communicate
2. Dendrites - neuron's antennae; recieve chemical signals
3. Axon - transmits chemical signals. |
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Term
| What are two more structures of the neuron? |
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Definition
1. Myelin Sheath- the protective covering around axon made up of glial cells; protective covering made up of fatty cells. Other job is to help speed up transmission signals between neurons.
2. Synapse - junction of an axon terminal onto a dendrite or another axon - the synaptic cleft - the space between; communication between neurons happens here. |
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Term
Neuron communication is electrochemical, so therefore....
Activity w/in the neuron is ________.
Activity b/w the neurons is ________. |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Occurs when there is balance between the +ve and -ve. |
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Term
| What is Action Potential? |
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Definition
| Occurs when the membrane becomes stimulated. Pores on the membrane open allowing the +ve charges to enter. The neuron is then depolarized. An electrical charge is sent down the axon. This last part is the action potential. |
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Term
| What is the All or None Principal? |
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Definition
| The neuron either has an action potential or it doesn't. They fire, or they don't. |
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Term
| What is the Refractory Period? |
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Definition
| A short period of time when things level out or get back to normal. A resting period when the neurons do not fire. |
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Term
| The ____ ____ sweeps along the axon and causes the release of ___________. |
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Definition
1. Action potential
2. neurotransmitters |
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Term
| What are neurotransmitters? |
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Definition
| Chemicals that move across the synaptic space. They communicate with other neurons by binding to their receptors. (Electrical process begins again) |
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Term
| What occurs after neurons communicate? |
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Definition
| The reuptake. Neurotransmitter is taken back in by the neuron that released it. Whatever has not been used is taken back in. |
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Term
| What are some neurotransmitters? |
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Definition
| Dopamine, GABA, Serotonin, Acetylcholine, and Endorphins. |
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Term
| What is psychopharmacology? |
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Definition
| The study of how drugs affect behaviour. |
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Term
| What are two effects of medications? |
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Definition
1. Agonists - act like neurotransmitters. Bind to and activate receptors.
2. Antagonists - block the reuptake of neurotransmitters so they are longer acting. |
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Term
| What is the Peripheral Nervous System? |
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Definition
| Carries infromation to and from the nervous system. Everything on the outside. |
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Term
| What are the two parts that the PNS is divided into? |
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Definition
1. Somatic Nervous System - Consists of nerves that carry messages to skeletal muscles. Controls voluntary muscles; muscle movement -> we have control over the movements.
2. Autonomic Nervous System - consists of nerves that control involuntary function. Vital and automatic processes of the body. Such as breathing and your heart beating. |
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Term
| What does ANS stand for? What is it divided into? |
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Definition
1. Autonomic Nervous System
2. a)Sympathetic Nervous System - becomes most active in emergency situations (fight or flight); increase in heartbeat, blood pressure, adrenaline rushes. Not normal occurences.
b)Parasympathetic Nervous System - Controls ongoing maintenance processes (Digestion); Puts things back together. |
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Term
| What is the CNS or Central Nervous System? |
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Definition
| Brain and Spinal cord - nerves. It is the main processing system for most information in the body. |
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Term
| What are the three regions of the brain? |
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Definition
1. Hindbrain - Most primative division of the brain.
2. Midbrain - acts like a relay station; receives afferent signals in the brain and relays information to more complex parts of the brain.
3. Forebrain - Involved in complex sensory, emotional, cognitive and behavioural processes. |
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Term
| What are the three structures of the Hindbrain? |
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Definition
1. Medulla - controls basic bodily functions; state of arousal
2. Pons - affect sleep and dreaming; connects medullar and cerebellum.
3. Cerebellum - influences balance, coordination and movement. |
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Term
| What are the two structures of the midbrain? |
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Definition
1. Tectum - involved in vision and hearing.
2. Tegmentum - includes parts of the reticular formation; variety of functions which include movement. |
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Term
| What are the three primary structures of the Forebrain? |
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Definition
1. Thalamus - processes sensory information as it arrives in the brain and transmits to other brain centres; all but smell sense
2. Hypothalmus - regulates many behaviours including eating and sleeping, to sexual activity and emotional expereience.
3. Cerebrum - Contains the basal ganglia and limbic system. |
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Term
| What are the two parts of the Cerebrum? |
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Definition
1. Basal Ganglia - controls movement and posture
2. Limbic System - influences emotions and memory. |
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Term
| What are the two parts of the Limbic system? |
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Definition
1. Hippocampus - involved in new learning; making or encoding longer term memories as well as retrieving the memories.
2. Amygdala - involved in emotional control; emotional memories |
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Term
| What is the Cerebral Cortex? |
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Definition
| The exterior covering of the brain. |
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Term
|
Definition
1. Frontal lobe
2. Parietal Lobe
3. Occipital Lobe
4. Temporal Lobe |
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Term
| What does the frontal lobe control? |
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Definition
| Higher-order functioning. Examples are memory, planning, and paying attention, monitoring, organizing, and directing thought processes. |
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Term
| What does the parietal lobe control? |
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Definition
| Integrates visual input; monitors body's position in space |
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Term
| What does the occipital lobe control? |
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Definition
| Processes visual input; eye-hand coordination |
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Term
| What does the temporal lobe control? |
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Definition
| Important for language comprehension, memory function and social understanding. |
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Term
| What are three techniques to study the brain? |
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Definition
1. Ablation
2. Monitoring neural activity
3. Neural imaging |
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Term
| What does ablation involve? |
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Definition
| Destroying neural tissue; changes in function are then monitored; ablation of the hypothalmus results in overeating or undereating |
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Term
| What are three types of scans involved with Neural imaging? |
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Definition
1. CT scans
2. PET Scans
3. MRI Scans |
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Term
| What does the left hemisphere of the brain involve? |
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Definition
| Speech processing and language. |
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Term
| What does the right hemisphere of the brain control? |
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Definition
| Creative tasks, spatial tasks, and musical tasks. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Awareness of oneself and the environment. |
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Term
| What are biological rhythms? |
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Definition
| A periodic, more or less regular fluctation in a biological system; may or may not have psychological implications. |
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Term
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Definition
| Biological rhythms are synchronized with external events such as changes in clock time, temperature and daylight. |
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Term
| What are Endogenous Biological Rhythms? What are three types? |
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Definition
Internal biological rhythms
1. Circadian Rhythms
2. Infradian Rhythms
3. Ultradian Rhythms |
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Term
| When do circadian rhythms occur? |
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Definition
| Occur about every 24 hours. An example is the sleep-wake cycle. |
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Term
| When do Infradian Rhythms occur? |
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Definition
| Occur less often than once a day. Examples are migrating birds and birds hibernating. |
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Term
| When do Ultradian Rhythms occur? |
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Definition
| Occur more frequently than once a day, about every 90 minutes. Examples are stomach contractions and hormone levels. |
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Term
| How do you study Circadian Rhythms? |
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Definition
| Isolate volunteers from time cues. |
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Term
| What is internal desynchronization? |
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Definition
| A state when biological rhythms are not in phase with one another. |
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Term
| What can Circadian rhythms be influenced by? |
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Definition
| Changes in routine. Such as airplane flights. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Seasonal Affective Disorder. A controversial disorder in which people experience depression during the winter and an improvement of mood in the spring. Can be treated through phototherapy or exposure to UV light. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Allows the body to eliminate waste products from muscles, repairing cells, strengthening the immune system, and to recover abilities lost during the day. |
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Term
| Sleep deprivation leads to decrease in _______ and _______ functioning. |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the Realms of Sleep? |
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Definition
Stage One - Feel self drifting
Stage Two - Minor noises do not disturb
Stage Three - Breathin/Pulse has slowed
Stage Four - Deep sleep
REM - Increased eye movement, loss of muscle tone and dreaming. |
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Term
| Who believed that dreams are unconscious wishes? |
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Definition
| Sigmeud Freud. To understand a dream we must distinguish manifest content from latent content. Not everything in dreams is symbolic. |
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Term
| What are ways Dreams are viewed? |
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Definition
1. Unconscious wishes
2. Efforts to deal with problems
3. By-product of mental housekeeping
4. Thinking
5. Interpreted Brain Activity |
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Term
| What are psychoactive drugs? |
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Definition
| Substances capable of influencing perception, mood, cognition, or behaviour. |
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Term
| What are types of Psychoactive drugs? |
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Definition
1. Stimulants speed up activity in the CNS
2. Depressants slow down activity in the CNS
3. Opiates relieve pain
4. Psychedelic drugs disrupt normal thought processes |
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Term
| How do psychoactive drugs work? |
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Definition
By acting on brain neurotransmitters.
1. Increase/Decrease the release of neurotransmitters.
2. Prevent reabsorption of excess neurotransmitters by the cells that have released them.
3. Block the effects of neurotransmitters on recieving cells
4. Bind to receptors that would ordinarily be triggered by a neurotransmitter or a neuromodulator. |
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Term
| What do the reactions to psychoactive drugs depend on? |
|
Definition
1. Physical factors - body weight, metabolism
2. Experience or number of times
3. Environmental factors (where&whom)
4. Mental set or expectations |
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Term
|
Definition
| A procedure in which the practitioner suggests changes in the sensations, perceptions, thoughts, feelings or behaviour of the subject. |
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Term
| What does hypnotic responsiveness depend on? |
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Definition
| The person being hypnotized. People hypnotized cannot be forced to do things against their will. |
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Term
| What are three facts about Hypnosis? |
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Definition
1. Doesn't increase accuracy of memory.
2. Doesn't produce a literal re-experiencing of long-ago events.
3. Used effectively for medical and psychological purposes. |
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Term
| What are the two theories of Hypnosis? |
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Definition
Dissociation theory- A split in consciousness in which one part of the mind operates indepedently of the rest of the consciousness, or DURING hypnosis, dissociation occurs between an executive control system in the brain and other brain systems involved in thinking and acting.
2. Sociocognitive theory - effects of hypnosis result from interaction b/w social influence of the hypnotist (socio) and the abilities, beliefs and expectations of the subject (cognitive). Can explain alien abduction and past life regression. |
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Term
|
Definition
The detection of physical energy emitted or reflected by physical objects.
It occurs when energy in the external environment or the body stimulates receptors in the sense organs. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The process by which the brain organizes and interprets sensory information. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The reduction or disappearance of of sensory responsiveness when stimulation is unchanging or repetitious. Prevents us from having to continuously respond to unimportant information |
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Term
|
Definition
| The absence of normal levels of sensory stimulation. |
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Term
| What is sensory overload? How can you reduce it? |
|
Definition
1. Overstimulation of the senses.
2. Can use selective attention to reduce sensory overload. |
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Term
| What is selective attention? |
|
Definition
| The focusing of attention on selected aspects of the environment and the blocking out of others. |
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Term
| What is inattentional blindness? |
|
Definition
| Failure to consciously perceive something you are looking at because you are not attending to it. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The visual experience specified by colour names and related to the wavelength of light |
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Term
|
Definition
| Lightness and luminance, the visual experience related to the amount of light emitted from or reflected by an object. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Vividness or purity of colour; the visual experience related to the complexity of light waves. |
|
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Term
| What is visual perception? |
|
Definition
| Is the process by which an organism selects and interprets visual input so it acquires meaning. Uses sensory input, past events and current stimulation. |
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Term
| How do you construct the visual world? |
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Definition
1. Form perception
2. Depth and distance perception
3. Visual constancies - when seeing IS believing
4. Visual illusions - when seeing IS misleading |
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Term
| What does the Gestalt principles describe? |
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Definition
| Describes the brain's organization of sensory building blocks into meaningful units and patterns. |
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Term
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Definition
| Things close to one another are grouped together. |
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Term
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Definition
| The brain tends to fill in gaps to percieve complete forms. |
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Term
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Definition
| Things that are alike are percieved together. |
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Term
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Definition
| Seeing lines that connect 1 to 2. A string of items will indicate where the next item will be. |
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Term
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Definition
| Items that move or change together will be perceived as a whole. |
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Term
| What does depth perception allow? |
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Definition
| Allows a person to estimate distance from an object, and the distance between objects. |
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Term
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Definition
| Do not depend on the use of both eyes |
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Term
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Definition
| Require the use of both eyes. |
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Term
| What is an example of a monocular cue? |
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Definition
| Motion parallax, kinetic depth effect, linear perspective, interposition, texture, highlighting and shadowing, and atmospheric perspective. |
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Term
| What is accomodation? (Monocular cue) |
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Definition
| The shape of the lens of the eye changes as distance to an object. |
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Term
| What are types of binocular cues? |
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Definition
| Retinal disparity, covergence. |
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Term
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Definition
| A specially built room that makes people seem to change size as they move around in it. |
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Term
| What are visual constancies? Examples? |
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Definition
The accurate perception of objects as stable or unchanged despite changes in the sensory patterns they produce.
Size, shape, location, brightness, and colour constancy. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability of the visual system to recognize a shape despite changes in its orientation or the angle from which it is viewed. |
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Term
| What is colour constancy? |
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Definition
| The way you percieve a colour depends on the surrounding colour illusions. |
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Term
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Definition
| Perception of a physical stimulus differing from measurable reality. |
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Term
| What are the three basic forms of learning? |
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Definition
1. Habituation
2. Cognitive Learning
3. Conditioning(Classical and Operant) |
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Term
| How do we study learning? |
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Definition
| Can be studied through experiments. Experiments can demonstrate cause/effect relationships. Researchers use both Human and Animal subjects. Researchers construct special mechanical devices for experiments. |
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Term
| What are learning associations influenced by? |
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Definition
| Frequency, Contiguity, and contingency. |
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Term
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Definition
| Systematic procedure through which associations and responses to specific stimuli are learned. |
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Term
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Definition
| An event that has an impact on an organism |
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Term
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Definition
| A reaction of an organism. |
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Term
| What are unconditioned stimulus? |
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Definition
| A stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response without any form of learning. |
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Term
| What is an unconditioned response? |
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Definition
| A response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without any form of learning (Reflex) |
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Term
| What is a neutral (Orienting) stimulus? |
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Definition
| A stimulus that does not elicit the response of interest (the unconditioned response) |
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Term
| What is a conditioned stimulus? |
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Definition
| The stimulus which elicits a new response as a result of the conditioning process. |
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Term
| What is a conditioned response? |
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Definition
| A response to a previously neutral stimulus learned through associations? |
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Term
| What are three stages of classical conditiong? |
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Definition
1. Before Conditioning
2. During Conditioning
3. After Conditioning |
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Term
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Definition
| Disappearance of the conditioned response. |
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Term
| What is spontaneous recovery? |
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Definition
| Reoccurrence of a previously extinguished response. |
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Term
| What are applications of classical conditioning? |
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Definition
1. Second-Order Conditioning - the conditioned stimulus is paired with a second neutral stimulus, which then comes to elicit the conditioned response.
2. Stimulus Generalization - similar stimuli produce the conditioned response. (Little Albert)
3. Stimulus Discrimination - response doesn't occur when stimuli are too different from conditioned stimuli (Discrimination traning)
4. Counter Conditioning - undesirable responses replaced with desirable ones (Case of Peter) |
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Term
| What is systematic desensitization? |
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Definition
| Reduction of phobias (Flooding) |
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Term
| What are the two parts of Operant Conditioning? |
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Definition
1. Operant Behaviours - are spontaneouly emitted.
2. Operant Conditioning - occurs when behaviour is associated with its consequence (positive or negative) |
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Term
| Who is a key figure of Operant Conditioning? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the Law of Effect? |
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Definition
| Reward encourages useful responses and lack of reward discourages useless ones. |
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Term
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Definition
| Contains a responding mechanism and delivers a consequence |
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Term
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Definition
| Successive approximations of behaviour are rewarded until desired behaviour is reached. |
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Term
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Definition
| Increase the probability that a behaviour will occur. It is a process. |
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Term
| What is positive reinforcement? |
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Definition
| Presentation of a pleasant stimulus. |
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Term
| What is a negative reinforcement? |
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Definition
| Removal of an aversive stimulus. |
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Term
| What is a primary reinforcers? |
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Definition
| Have survival value and do not need to be learned. Example: food and water |
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Term
| What is a secondary reinforcer? |
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Definition
| Initially neutral stimuli with no intrinsic value. Example: Money, good grades |
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Term
| What is superstitious behaviour? |
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Definition
| Accidental reinforcement leads to increased behaviour |
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Term
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Definition
| The process by which a stimulus follows a response and reduces the frequency of a response. |
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Term
| What is positive punishment? |
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Definition
| An aversive stimulus is presented. |
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Term
| What is negative punishment? |
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Definition
| Pleasant stimulus is removed. |
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Term
| What is a primary punisher? |
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Definition
| A stimulus that is naturally painful or unpleasant. A shock or loud sounds. |
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Term
| What is a secondary punisher? |
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Definition
| A neutral stimulus that initially has no intrinsic negative value. Behaviour chart and secret signals. |
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Term
| What is learned helplessness? |
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Definition
| Giving up and not responding following inconsistent consequencing. |
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Term
| What are the three key variables in operant conditioning? |
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Definition
1. Strength
2. Timing
3. Frequency - continuous reinforcement and partial reinforcement |
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Term
| What are four basic types of schedules? |
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Definition
1. Fixed Interval Schedule - reinforces the first response after a given amount of time has passed.
2. Variable Interval Schedule - reinforces first response, but amount of time varies.
3. Fixed Ratio Schedule - Reinforcement comes after a set number of responses.
4. Variable Ratio Schedule - Reinforces after a number of responses, but number varies. |
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Term
| What is stimulus discrimination? |
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Definition
| Reinforcement delivered only after the animal discriminates correctly. |
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Term
| When does extinction occur in operant conditioning? |
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Definition
| Occurs when behaviour is repeatedly not followed by a reinforcer. |
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Term
| What is spontaneous recovery in operant conditioning? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is behavioural self regulation? |
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Definition
| Assumes that people will engage in behaviours that seem optimal. An example is classroom behaviour management. |
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Term
| Evolutionary theory is ________. |
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Definition
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Term
| Learning theory stress changes in organisms that occur due to ______ _____. |
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Definition
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Term
| Evolutionary theory accounts for _____ and ______ to promote survival. |
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Definition
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Term
| What did Donald Hebb believe? |
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Definition
1. Believed structure of brain changes with learning.
2. Temporary changes in neurons occur with initial exposure to new stimulus. |
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Term
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Definition
| Evolution of temporary changes in neurons into permanent circuits. It is the basis of learning and memory. |
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Term
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Definition
| Discoverig relationships between events. Kohler demonstrated insight in Chimpanzees. |
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Term
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Definition
| Non-visible learning that occurs w/o direct reinforcement. Tolman and his rats in the maze. |
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Term
| What is observational learning? |
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Definition
| Learing can occur w/o being reinforced. Organisms learn new responses by observing a model. This Albert Bandura with Bobo doll experiments. |
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Term
| What are the variables in observational learning? |
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Definition
| Type and power of the model. Learner's personality and degree of independence. Degree of uncertainty and situational cues. |
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Term
| What is social psychology? |
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Definition
| The scientific study of the influence of social processes on the way people think, feel and behave. |
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Term
| What are the three key issues in social psychology? |
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Definition
1. Attitudes
2. Prejudice
3. Altrustic Behaviours |
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Term
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Definition
| Long-lasting patterns of feelings and beliefs about other people, ideas or objects. |
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Term
| What are the three dimensions of an attitude? |
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Definition
1. Cognitive - thoughts and beliefs
2. Emotional - involves evaluative feelings
3. Behavioural - how beliefs and evaluative feelings are demonstrated via behaviour. |
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Term
| What plays a prominent role in the formation of attitudes? |
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Definition
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Term
| Classical conditioning in attitude formation. |
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Definition
| Suggests that negative evaluative feelings are associated with ideas. |
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Term
| Operant conditioning in attitude formation. |
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Definition
| Suggests that reinforced behaviours are likely to reoccur. |
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Term
| Observational learning in attitude formation. |
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Definition
| Suggests that people form attitudes via observing the attitudes of others (imitation) |
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Term
| What are the four key factors in attitude change? |
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Definition
1. Communicator - communicator with integrity, credbility, and trustworthiness induce change.
2. Communication - clear, convincing and logical argument induces attitude change.
3. Medium: way the communication is presented affects receptiveness (Face-to-face)
4. Audience: age and intelligence influence attitude change. |
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Term
| Who suggested the factors of attitude change? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What is the elaboration likelihood model? |
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Definition
| Knowing how to appeal to people requires figuing out the likelihood that they will think much about (elaborate on) the arguments. |
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Term
| What are the two routes of attitude change? |
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Definition
1. Central route
2. Peripheral route |
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Term
| What is the central route of attitude change? |
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Definition
| Emphasis on message content. Relies on thoughtful, conscious consideration. |
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Term
| What is the peripheral route? |
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Definition
| Emphasis on more superficial, less carefl and more emotional evaluation of message. |
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