Term
|
Definition
| the contents and processes of subjective experience; sensations, thoughts, and emotions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| observable actions, such as moving, talking, gesturing, and so on; can also refer to the activities of cells, as measured through physiological recording devices, and to thoughts and feelings, as measured through oral and written expression. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| professional psychologists who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems. |
|
|
Term
| counselling psychologists |
|
Definition
| professional psychologists who deal with milder problems, such as family and personal adjustment issues. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an individual who provides some sort of therapy or support to clients but who (typically) does not have advanced training in providing psychological treatment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| medical doctors who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems; unlike psychologists, psychiatrists are licensed to prescribe drugs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| psychologists who apply the principles of scientific psychology to practical, everyday problems. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| psychologists who conduct experiments or collect observations designed to discover the basic principles of behaviour and mind. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the idea that knowledge comes directly from experience. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the idea that certain kids of knowledge and ideas are innate, or present at birth; innate ideas do not need to be learned. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an early school of psychology; structuralists attempted to understand the mind by breaking it down into its basic constituent parts, much as a molecular biologist might try to understand an organic compound. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an early school of psychology; functionalists believe that the proper way to understand mind and behavior is to analyze their function and purpose. you can only truly understand a mental process, functionalists argue, by first knowing the purpose of that process. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a school of psychology proposing that the proper subject matter of psychology is directly observable behaviour and the situations that lead to changes in behaviour, rather than immediate conscious experience. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a term used by Freud to describe his theory of mind and system of therapy which involves analyzing the conscious mind to discover underlying unconscious influences. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an approach to personality that focuses on people's unique capacity for choice, responsibility and growth. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the position adopted by many psychologists that it's useful to integrate information from several sources; we need not rely exclusively on any single theoretical approach. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the shift away from strict behaviourism, begun in the 1950s, characterized by renewed interest in the study of consciousness and internal mental processes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the study of the human mind and behavioral processes as products of natural selection. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the shared values, customs, and beliefs that are characteristic of a group or community. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the methods used to measure and describe aspects of behaviour and experience. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the extent to which an individual's behaviour changes as a result of being observed; the behaviour is altered in reaction to being observed. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the extent to which the results of an observation generalize to other situations or are representative of real life. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a research technique that involves recording only naturally occurring behaviour as opposed to behaviour produced in the laboratory. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a descriptive research technique in which the research effort is focused on one or a few individuals who are studied in great depth. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a descriptive research technique designed to gather limited amounts of information from many people, usually by administering a questionnaire. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a procedure for selecting a representative subset of a target population; the procedure guarantees that everyone in the population has an equal likelihood of being selected for the sample. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a statistic that indicates whether two variables are related or vary together in a systematic way; vary from +1.00 (perfect positive relationship) to 0.00 (no relationship) to -1.00 (perfect negative relationship) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a technique in which the investigator actively manipulates or alters some aspect of the environment independently of other variables and observes the effect of the manipulation on behaviour. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the aspect of the environment that is manipulated by the researcher in an experiment; manipulation must consist of at least two conditions, experimental and control. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the behaviour that is measured in an experiment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an uncontrolled variable that changes along with the independent variable. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the extent to which an experimenter has effectively controlled for confounding variables; internal valid experiments allow for the determination of causality. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a technique that ensures that each participant in an experiment has an equal chance of being assigned to any of the conditions in the experiment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an inactive, or inert, substance or treatment that resembles an experimental substance or treatment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an experimental design in which the participants do not know to which of the conditions they have been assigned (e.g., experimental versus control); used to control for subject expectancies. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an experimental design in which neither the participants nor th research observers are aware of who has been assigned to the experimental and control groups; used to control for both subject and experimenter expectancies. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the arithmetic average of a set of scores, obtained by dividing the sum of all scores by the number of scores. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the most frequently occurring score in a set of scores. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the middle point in an ordered set of scores; half the scores fall below the median score and half fall above. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a measure of how much the scores in a data set differ from one another. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the difference between the larges and smallest scores in a distribution. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an indication of how much individual scores differ or vary from the mean in a set of scores. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mathematical techniques that help researchers describe and summarize their data |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mathematical techniques that help researchers estimate the likelihood that recorded behaviours are representative of a population or the likelihood that differences or relationships between observations are due to chance. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the principle that before consenting to participate in research, people must be fully informed of any significant factors that might affect their willingness to participate. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| at the conclusion of an experimental session, informing the participants about the purpose of the experiment, including any deception that was involved. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the principle that all personal information from a participant in research or therapy should not be revealed without the individual's permission. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information by generating an electrochemical signal; the basic building blocks of the nervous system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| neurons that make initial contact with the environment and carry the message inward toward the spinal cord and brain. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| neurons that make no direct contact with the external world but rather convey information from one neuron to another |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| neurons that carry information away from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands that directly produce behvaioural responses. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cells in the nervous system that are not neurons and hence do not transmit or receive information but perform a variety of functions, such as removing waste, filling empty space, and helping neurons to communicate efficiently. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an insulating material that protects the axons of some neurons and helps to speed up neural transmission. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the branchlike fibres that extend outward from a neuron and receive information from other neurons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the long tail-like part of a neuron that serves as the cell's transmitter device. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| spaces seperating the segments of the myelin sheath covering of the neuron; they help speed the nerve impulse along the axon. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the tiny swellings at the end of a neuron's axon that contain chemicals that, when released into the synapse, are taken up by the dentrites of other neurons, thereby stimulating them. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the junction, or small gap, between a terminal button of one neuron and a dendrite of another neuron. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the tiny electrical charge in place between the inside and outside of the resting neuron. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the all-or-none electrical signal that travels down a neuron's axon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the period of time following an action potential during which more action potentials cannot be generated. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chemical messengers that relay information from one neuron to the next; released from the terminal buttons in to the synapse, where they interact chemically with the cell membrane of the next neuron; the result is either an excitatory or an inhibitory influence on the recipient neuron. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a neurotransmitter that plays several roles in the central and peripheral nervous systems, including the excitation of muscle contractions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a neurotransmitter that often leads to inhibitory effects; decreased levels have been linked to Parkinson's disease, and increased levels have been linked to schizophrenia; also plays an important role in the neurological mechanisms of reward. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a neurotransmitter that has been linked to sleep, dreaming, and general arousal and may also be involved in some psychological disorders, such as depression and schizophrenia. |
|
|
Term
| gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABA) |
|
Definition
| a neurotransmitter that may play a role in the regulation of anxiety; it generally produces inhibitory effects |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| morphine-like chemicals that act as the brain's natural painkillers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a largely autonomic body movement, such as the knee jerk, that is controlled by a simple network of sensory neurons, interneurons in the spinal cord, and motor neurons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ability of neurons to alter synaptic connections during learning and during recover from brain injury. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bundles of axons that make up neural "transmission cables" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| nerves that transmit information from sensory organs to the brain, and from the brain to the skeletal muscles; part of the peripheral nervous system. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| nerves that control the more automatic needs of the body, such as heart rate, digestion, blood pressure, and so on; part of the peripheral nervous system. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the division of the autonomic nervous system that helps the body respond to emergencies. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the division of the autonomic nervous system that helps the body calm down. |
|
|
Term
| transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) |
|
Definition
| powerful pulses of magnetic energy applied to the scalp stimulate action potentials in the regions of the cortex; behavioural responses cast light on the function of the stimulated brain region. |
|
|
Term
| electroencephalograph (EEG) |
|
Definition
| a device used to monitor the electrical activity of the brain by measuring tiny changes in the electrical fields on the scalp. |
|
|
Term
| event-related potentials (ERP) |
|
Definition
| EEGS patterns observed shortly after presentation of a stimulus. |
|
|
Term
| computerized tomography scan (CT scan) |
|
Definition
| the use of highly focused laser beams of X-rays to construct detailed anatomical maps of the living brain. |
|
|
Term
| positron emission tomography (PET) |
|
Definition
| a method of measuring how radioactive substances are absorbed in the brain; it can be used to detect how different tasks activate different areas of the living brain. |
|
|
Term
| magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) |
|
Definition
| a device that uses magnetic fields and radio-wave pulses to construct detailed, three-dimensional images of the brain. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a primitive part of the brain that sits at the juncture where the brain and spinal cord merge; structures in the hindbrain, including the medulla, pons, and reticular formation, control the basic life-support systems of the body. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a hindbrain structure at the base of the brain that is involved in the coordination of complex motor skills (e.g., walking, throwing) and may contribute to the performance of other similar tasks as well |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the middle portion of the brain, containing such structures as the tectum, superior colliculus, and inferior colliculus; structures serve as neural relay stations and may help coordinate reactions to sensory events. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the outer portion of the brain, including the cerebral cortex and the structures of the limbic system. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a relay station in the forebrain though to be an important gathering point for input from the senses. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a forebrain structure thought to play a role in the regulation of various motivational activities, including eating, drinking, and sexual behaviour. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a system of structures thought to be involved in motivational and emotional behaviours (the amygdala) and memory (the hyippocampus). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one of four anatomical regions of each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, located on the top front of the brain; contain the motor cortex and are involved in initiating higher-level thought processes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one of four anatomical regions of each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, located roughly on the top middle portion of the brain; contain the somatosensory cortex which controls the sense of touch. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one of four anatomical regions of each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, located roughly on the sides of the brain; involved in certain aspects of speech and language perception. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one of four anatomical regions of each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, located at the back of the brain; visual processing is controlled here. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| asymmetry in the functions of the right and left hemispheres of the cerebral cortex (e.g., in most indiviuals, most language skills are lateralized to the left hemisphere. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the collection of nerve fibres that connect the two hemispheres and allow information to pass from one side to the other. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a network of glands that uses the bloodstream to send chemical messages that regulate growth and other internal functions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chemicals released into the blood by the various endocrine glands to help control a variety of internal regulatory functions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a kind of master gland that controls the release of hormones from other glands in response to signals from the hypothalamus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| glands that secrete norepinephrine and epinephrine into the bloodstream |
|
|
Term
| norepinephrine and epineprhine |
|
Definition
| hormones that cause a surge of energy that increases the heart rate, directing blood to areas that require it (and away from the stomach and intestine) and making glucose available to the muscles. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the differential production and survival of offspring by species members with advantageous traits. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a distinguishable characteristic of an organism. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a heritable trait that provided an organism with an advantage in surviving or reproducing during its evolutionary history. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| segments of chromosomes that contain chemically coded instructions for creating particular hereditary characteristics |
|
|
Term
| dominant versus recessive genes |
|
Definition
| many traits have two genes: one dominant and the other recessive; if the two such genes for a given trait differ, the dominant gene controls the observable characteristic. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the genetic information inherited from parents. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a person's observable characteristics, such as hair colour; controlled partly by the genotype and partly by the environment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| error in the process by which chromosomes are copied that changes the genotype specified by those chromosomes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the study of similarities and differences between biological (blood) relatives to help discover the role heredity plays in physical or psychological traits; rarely provide conclusive evidence because genes and the environment are usually entangled. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the traits of children adopted at an early age are compared with those of heir biological parents and siblings, with whom they share genetic material but not rearing environment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| identical twins, who share genetic material, are compared with fraternal twins in an effort to disentangle the roles of heredity and environment in giving rise to psychological traits. |
|
|
Term
| environment of evolutionary adaptedness (EEA) |
|
Definition
| the environment, or environments, in which a species' evolutionary adaptations were selected. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is processed by the visual system; light is typically classified in terms of wavelength (the physical distance from one energy cycle to the next) and intensity (the amount of light falling on an object). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the dimension of light that produces colour; hue is typically determined by the wavelength of light reflecting from an object. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the aspect of the visual experience that changes with light intensity; in general, as the intensity of light increases, so does its perceived brightness. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the transparent and protective outer covering of the eye. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the flexible, transparent disk of tissue that helps focus light toward the back of the eye. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the hole in the centre of the iris through which light enters the eye, the size of the pupil changes with light intensity. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the ring of coloured tissue surrounding the pupil; if you have brown eyes, your irises are (mostly) brown. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in vision, the process by which the lens changes shape temporarily to help focus light on the retina. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the thin layer of tissue that covers the back of the inside of the eye and contains the light-sensitive receptors cells for vision |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| receptors cells in the retina, located mainly on the periphery of the retina, that transduce light energy into neural inputs; highly sensitive and are active in dim light. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| receptors cells in the central portion of the retina that transduce light energy into neural activity; operate best when light levels are fairly high, and they are primarily responsible for the ability to sense fine detail and colour. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the “central pit” area in the centre portion of the retina where most of the cone receptors are located. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the ability to see fine detail. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process through which the eyes adjust to dim light. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in vision, the portion of the retina that, when stimulated, causes the activity of a higher-level neuron (such as a ganglion cell or an even higher-level neuron in the visual cortex) to change. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the point where the optic nerve leaves the back of the eye; the blind spot has no rods or cones. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| processing that occurs in many different brain regions at the same time, in parallel. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cells in the visual cortex that respond to very specific visual events, such as bars of light at particular orientations. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a theory of colour vision proposing that colour information is extracted by comparing the relative activations of three different types of cone receptors. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a sensation (a vision of complementary colour) experienced after removal of a stimulus (staring at a patch of vivid colour); |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a theory of colour vision proposing that certain cells in the visual pathway increase their activation levels to one colour and decrease their activation levels to another colour (e.g. increasing to red and decreasing to green). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| processing that is driven by the physical input contacting the sensory receptors. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| processing that is driven by beliefs and expectations about how the world is organized. |
|
|
Term
| Gestalt principles of organization |
|
Definition
| the organizing principles of perception proposed by the Gestalt psychologists, which are the laws of proximity, similarity, closure, continuation, and common fate. |
|
|
Term
| recognition by components |
|
Definition
| the idea proposed by Biederman that people recognize objects perceptually through smaller components called geons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
gradual reduction, with increasing distance, of the apparent coarseness of a surface (such as the ground or floor); provides a powerful cue to the distances of objects located on that surface.
- lower region: bias to perceive the lower part of a visual scene as the “figure” (meaningful object of perception) rather than “ground” (background). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cues for depth for which input from one eye is sufficient. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cues for depth that depend on comparisons between the two eyes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a binocular cue for depth that is based on differences between the images in each eye. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a binocular cue for depth that is based on the extent to which the two eyes move inward, or converge, when looking at an object. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| perceiving the properties of an object as remaining the same even though the physical properties of the sensory input from that object are changing. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inappropriate interpretations of physical reality; perceptual illusions often occur as a result of the brain’s use of otherwise adaptive organizing principles. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the physical input to the auditory system, a mechanical energy travelling in waves that requires a medium, such as air or water, through which to move. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the psychological experience that results from the auditory processing of a particular frequency of sound. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the psychological experience that results from the auditory processing of a particular amplitude of sound. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the external flap of tissue commonly referred to as the “ear”; it helps direct sounds toward the tympanic membrane. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the eardrum which responds to incoming sound waves by vibrating. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the portion of the ear between the eardrum and the cochlea containing three small bones (the malleus, incus, and stapes) that intensify and prepare the sound vibrations for passage into the inner ear. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the snail shell-shaped sound processor in the inner ear, where sounds are transduced into nerve impulses. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a flexible membrane running through the cochlea that, through its movement, displaces the auditory receptor cells (hair cells). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the idea that the location of auditory receptors cells activated by movement of the basilar membrane plays a role in the perception of pitch. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the idea that pitch perception is determined partly by the frequency of neural impulses travelling up the auditory pathway. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| neurons that respond to a cooling of the skin by increasing the production of neural impulses. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| neurons that respond vigorously when the temperature of the skin increases. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an adaptive response by the body to any stimulus that is intense enough to cause tissue damage. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the idea that neural impulses generated by pain receptors can be blocked, or gated, in the spinal cord by signals produced in the brain. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in perception, the ability to sense the position and movement of one’s body parts. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a receptor system attached to the inner ear that responds to movement, acceleration, and deceleration and to changes in upright posture. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| small organs in the inner ear that contain receptors responsible for the sense of balance. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| receptor cells that react to molecules in the air or dissolved in liquids, leading to the sense of smell and taste. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a psychological term used to describe the overall gustatory (eating) experience; flavour is influenced by taste, smell, the visual appearance of food, and expectations about the food’s quality. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the receptor cells on the tongue involved in taste. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a field of psychology in which researchers search for ways to describe the transition from the physical stimulus to the psychological experience of that stimulus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the level of intensity that lifts a stimulus over the threshold of conscious awareness; it’s defined as the intensity level at which a person detects the presence of the stimulus 50% of the time. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a technique that can be used to determine an individual’s ability to detect the presence of a stimulus and to measure the individual’s response bias. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the smallest difference in the magnitude of two stimuli that an observer can reliably detect. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| states that the ability to notice a difference in the magnitude of two stimuli is a constant proportion of the intensity of the standard stimulus; psychologically, the more intense a stimulus is to begin with, the more intense it will need to become for a person to notice. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the tendency of sensory systems to reduce sensitivity to a stimulus that remains constant. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the internal processes people use to set and follow priorities for mental functioning. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a technique in which two different auditory messages are presented simultaneously, one to each ear; usually the subject’s task is to shadow, or repeat aloud, one message while ignoring the other. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the ability to focus on one auditory message, such as a friend’s voice at a noisy party, and largely ignore others, yet notice when your own name is spoken among the auditory stimuli that you have been ignoring. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fast and almost effortless processing that requires little or no focused attention. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a complex attention disorder characterized by a tendency to ignore things that appear on one side of the body, usually the left side. |
|
|
Term
| attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder |
|
Definition
| a psychological condition marked by difficulties in concentrating and sustaining attention and by high levels of fidgety physical activity; occurs most often in children. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| biological activities that rise and fall in a 24-hour cycle. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| brain structures that schedule rhythmic variations in bodily functions by triggering them at the appropriate times. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the pattern of brain activity observed in someone who is in a relaxed state, with his or her eyes closed. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the patter of brain activity observed in stage 1 sleep. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the pattern of brain activity observed in stage 3 and stage 4 sleep; it’s characterized by synchronized slow waves (also called slow wave patterns). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements and low-amplitude, irregular |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| drugs that affect behaviour and mental processes, and produce alterations of conscious awareness. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an adaptation that the body makes to compensate for the continued use of a drug such that increasing amounts of the drug are need to produce the same physical, psychological, and behavioural effects. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a condition in which an individual experiences a physical or psychological need for continued use of a drug. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| clean and measurable physical reactions, such as sweating, vomiting, tremors, or changes in heart rate, that occur when a person stops taking certain drugs after continued use. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a class of drugs that slow or depress the ongoing activity of the central nervous system. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a class of drugs that increase central nervous system activity, enhancing neural transmission. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a class of drugs that reduce anxiety, lower sensitivity to pain, and elevate mood; opiates often act to depress nervous system activity. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a class of drugs that tend to disrupt normal mental and emotional functioning and produce distorted perceptions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a social interaction between a person perceived to be a hypnotist and a person who perceives himself or herself to be a hypnotic subject; the interaction produces a heightened state of suggestibility of the subject. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a hypnotically induced behaviour characterized by an ability to hold one or more limbs of the body in a rigid position for long periods without tiring. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the supposed enhancement of memory that is said to occur under hypnosis; little evidence supports the existence of this effect. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a hypothesized, hypnotically induced splitting of consciousness during which two streams of awareness are said to coexist: one that is fully under the sway of the hypnotist’s suggestions and one that remains more aloof and objective. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a technique for self-induced manipulation of awareness, often used for relaxation and self-reflection. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an inborn tendency to shift our focus of attention toward a novel or surprising event |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the decline in responsiveness to repeated stimulation; habituation has been used to investigate the perceptual capabilities of infants. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an increase in tendency to respond to an event that has been repeated; sensitization is more likely when a repeated stimulus is intense. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a set of procedures, initially developed by Pavlov, used to investigate how organisms learn about the signalling properties of events; leads to the learning of relations between events - conditioned and unconditioned stimuli - that occur outside of our control. |
|
|
Term
| unconditioned stimulus (US) |
|
Definition
| a stimulus that automatically produces - or elicits - an observable response prior to training. |
|
|
Term
| unconditioned response (UR) |
|
Definition
| the observable response that is produced automatically, before training, on presentation of an unconditioned stimulus. |
|
|
Term
| conditioned response (CR) |
|
Definition
| the acquired response that is produced to the conditioned stimulus in anticipation of the arrival of the unconditioned stimulus; often resembles the unconditioned response, although not always. |
|
|
Term
| conditioned stimulus (CS) |
|
Definition
| a neutral stimulus (one that does not produce the unconditioned response before training) that is paired with the unconditioned stimulus during classical conditioning and thereby comes to vive rise to a conditioned response. |
|
|
Term
| second-order conditioning |
|
Definition
| a procedure in which an established conditioned stimulus is used to condition a second neutral stimulus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| responding to an new stimulus in a way similar to the response produced by an established conditioned stimulus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| responding to a new stimulus in a way that is different from the response to an established conditioned stimulus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| presenting a conditioned stimulus repeatedly, after conditioning, without the conditioned stimulus, resulting in a gradual loss of the conditioned response |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the recovery of an extinguished conditioned response after a period without exposure to the conditioned stimulus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| learning to associate a previously neutral stimulus with the absence of an unconditioned stimulus. |
|
|
Term
| instrumental or operant conditioning |
|
Definition
| a procedure for studying how organisms learn about the consequences of their own voluntary actions: their behaviours are instrumental in producing rewards and punishments. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| if a response in a particular situation is followed by a satisfying or pleasant consequence, the response will be strengthened; if a response in a particular situation is followed by an unsatisfying or unpleasant consequence, the response will be weakened. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a perspective on the analysis of human and animal behaviour that emphasizes explaining behaviour in terms of environmental events and that minimizes the use of internal explanations, like thoughts, beliefs, and intentions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the stimulus situation that sets the occasion for a response to be followed by reinforcement or punishment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| response consequences that increase the likelihood of responding in a similar way again. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an event that, when presented after a response in a certain situation, increases the likelihood of that response occurring again in that situation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an event that, when removed after a response in a situation, increases the likelihood of that response occurring in that situation again. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a stimulus that has acquired reinforcing properties through prior learning. |
|
|
Term
| schedule of reinforcement |
|
Definition
| a rule that an experimenter uses to determine when particular responses will be reinforced: in a continuous reinforcement schedule, a reward is delivered every time the target behavior is performed; partial reinforcement schedules, in contrast, can be fixed or variable, and ratio or interval. |
|
|
Term
| partial reinforcement schedule |
|
Definition
| a schedule in which reinforcement is delivered only some of the time after the response has occurred. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a schedule in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is fixed and does not change from trial to trial. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a schedule in which a certain number of responses is required for reinforcement, but the number of required responses typically changes from trial to trial. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a schedule in which the reinforcement is delivered for the first response that occurs following a fixed interval of time. |
|
|
Term
| variable-interval schedule |
|
Definition
| a schedule in which the alloted time before a response will yield reinforcement changes from trial to trial. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a procedure in which reinforcement is delivered in which reinforcement is delivered for successive approximations of the desired response. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| consequences that decrease the likelihood of responding in a similar way again. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an event that, when presented after a response, lowers the likelihood of that response occurring again. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an event that, when removed after a response, lowers the likelihood of that response occurring again. |
|
|
Term
| observational, learning, social learning, or modelling |
|
Definition
| learning that occurs as a result of observing the experiences of others. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the processes that control the acquisition of information into memory. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the processes that determine how information is maintained over time. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the processes that control how information is recovered from memory and translated into performance. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the capacity to preserve sensory information in a relatively pure, unanalyzed form for a very brief period. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a limited-capacity “working memory” system that people use to hold information, after it has been perceptually analyzed, usually for less than a minute; the system used to temporarily store, think about, and reason with new information and with information retrieved from long-term memory. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the system that produces and stores visual sensory memories. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a strategic process that helps maintain short-term memories through the use of internal repetition. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the largest number of items that can reliably be recalled from short-term memory in their proper presentation order. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a short-term memory strategy that involves mentally rearranging many pieces of information into a familiar and meaningful pattern; a single chunk can represent a wealth of information. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the system used to maintain information for extended periods, from several seconds to a lifetime. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| remembering a particular past event or episode that happened to you personally, such as recalling having breakfast this morning or recollecting your high-school graduation ceremony. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| knowledge about language and the world, retrieved as abstract facts or beliefs that make little or no reference to any particular episode in personal experience. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| memory for how to do things, such as ride a bike or swing a golf club. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an encoding process that involves the formation of connections between to-be-remembered input and other information in memory. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a term used to refer to how unique or different a memory record is, compared with other information in memory; distinctive memory records tend to be recalled well. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| clustering repetitions of to-be-remembered information close together in time. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| spacing the repetitions of to-be-remembered information over time. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the better memory for items near the beginning of a studied list compared with mid-list items. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the better memory for items near the end of a studied list compared with mid-list items. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the processes used to construct an internal visual image through the use of some of the same brain mechanisms as in perception. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| special mental tricks that help people think about material in ways that improve later memory; most use visual imagery and elaboration during encoding and a systematic strategy for searching memory during retrieval. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a mnemonic device in which you first memorize a series of locations along a familiar real-world pathway, such as the route from your residence to the university, and then form visual images of the to-be-remembered items along that pathway; to recall the items, you mentally traverse the pathway, checking each location as a retrieval cue. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a mnemonic device for remembering foreign language vocabulary in which you (1) think of an English word that sounds similar to the to-be-learned foreign word and (2) form a visual image connecting the meaning of the to-be-remembered word with the similar-sounding English word. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a testing condition in which a person is asked to remember information without specific retrieval cues: subjects might simply be asked to ‘recall the words you studied a few minutes ago”. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a testing condition in which subjects are given specific retrieval cues to help them remember: subjects might be given hints or cues, such as “some of the words were fruits; others were vegetables”. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the idea that forgetting is caused by a failure to retrieve memories because of a lack of appropriate retrieval cues. |
|
|
Term
| encoding specificity principle |
|
Definition
| the idea that the effectiveness of retrieval cues depends on the extent to which they match the specifies of the to-be-remembered material; the more similar the cue and the testing situation to the to-be-remembered material and the studying situation, the more likely the memories will be accessed. |
|
|
Term
| transfer-appropriate processing |
|
Definition
| the idea that the likelihood of correct retrieval increases as function of the similarity between mental processes during encoding and those during test. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an organized knowledge structure in long-term memory. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| highly detailed and vivid recollections of the circumstances under which one first learned of an emotionally significant and surprising event. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| use of memory that occurs automatically and without conscious awareness of remembering. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| deliberate uses of memory with conscious awareness of remembering. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the loss in accessibility of previously accessible memory information. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the proposal that memories are forgotten or lost spontaneously with passage of time (or with some passive chemical processes that occur over time, akin to rusting) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a process in which the formation of new memories hurts the retrieval of old memories. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a process in which old memories interfere with the establishment and retrieval of new memories. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| forgetting that is caused by physical problems in the brain, such as those induced by injury or disease. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| memory loss for events that happened before the brain injury. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| memory loss for events that happen after the physical injury. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the processes that underlie the mental manipulation of knowledge, images, and ideas, often in an attempt to reach a goal, such as solving a problem. |
|
|
Term
| linguistic relativity hypothesis |
|
Definition
| the proposal that language determines the characteristics and content of thought. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the rules or procedures of language that allow the communicator to combine arbitrary symbols in an infinite number of ways to convey meaning; includes the rules of phonology, syntax, and semantics. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the rules and procedures for combining sounds to make words in a language. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the rules and procedures for combining words to form sentences. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the rules and procedures for communicating meaning through words and combinations of words. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the smallest significant, difference-making sound units in speech. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the smallest units in a language that carry meaning (words, prefixes, suffixes). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the literal ordering of words in a sentence. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the underlying representation of meaning in a sentence. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the practical knowledge used to comprehend the intentions of a speaker and to produce an appropriate response. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a problem with a clear starting point and a fully specified goal. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a problem, such as “becoming a better person,” for which the starting point and goal cannot be clearly specified. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the tendency to see objects, and their functions, in certain fixed and typical ways, and thereby to fail to see alternative uses of objects that would enable us to solve a problem. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| well-established habits of perception and thought used to solve problems; typically efficient and effective, but sometimes make problem solving more difficult. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| step-by-step rules or procedures that, if applied correctly, guarantee a problem solution eventually. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the rules of thumb we often use to solve problems; are quick and easy but do not guarantee a correct solution. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a problem-solving heuristic that involves devising actions, or means, that reduce the distance between the current starting point and the desired end ( the goal). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a problem-solving heuristic that involves mentally starting at the goal and mentally moving backwards towards the starting point to see how the goal can be reached. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a problem-solving heuristic that involves trying to find a connection between the current problem and some previous problem you have solved successfully. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the thought processes involved in evaluating and choosing from among a set of alternatives; it usually involves some degree of risk. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the way the alternatives in a decision making situation are structured and described. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the tendency to emphasize hypothesis confirming evidence when making decisions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| perception of a relationship between variables (e.g. handwriting and personality) that does not really exist. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the tendency to base judgements on similarity to an abstract ideal, expectation, or stereotype; for example, when deciding whether a sequence of coin-toss outcomes is random, people who use the representative heuristic focus on how irregular the sequence looks, because they think short random sequences should look irregular. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the tendency to base estimates of frequency or probability on the ease with which examples come to mind; for example, if you’ve just heard about a plane crash, your estimate of the likelihood of plane crashes may increase because the recent plane crash easily comes to mind. |
|
|
