Term
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Definition
- motivation is the internal state that tends to direct a person's behaviours toward a goal
- Motivation is the driving force by which humans achieve their goals
- Inner striving of individuals that direct behaviour
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Term
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Definition
- a drive is an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities to reduce this tension
- drive theories emphasize how internal states of bodily tension push people in certain directions
- Motives are considered in terms of drive reduction
- the drive serves exclusively to initiate behaviour, but does not give it direction
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Term
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Definition
- incentive theories propose that external stimuli regulate motivational states
- an incentive is an external goal that has the capacity to motivate behaviour
- Expectancy- value models of motivation(ones motivation to persue a goal depends on the expectancy about ones chances to obtain it and the value of the goal)
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Term
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Definition
- Need theory: any condition within the person that is essential and necessary for life, growth, and well-being
- Need theory grew out of the idea that the energy, direction, and persistence of behaviour are due to the existence of needs
- Individuals are born with a limited set of needs that can be modified though learning
- Types of needs exist. Together, phsysiological, psychological, and social needs provide a range of motives that serve the individual's overall life, growth, and well-being
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Term
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Definition
- Physiological Needs: Inherent within the workings of biological systems. Ex. thirst, hunger, sex
- Psychological and Social Needs: arise from unique personal experiences and thus vary considerbly from one person to another. Ex. autonomy, competence, relatedness, achievement, power
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Term
| Henry Murray's Theory of Needs |
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Definition
- Needs are important underlying determinants if behaviour. Need refers to a readiness to respond in a certain way under certain circumstances
- Two basic types of needs
- 1. Primary needs: based upon biological demands
- 2. Secondary needs: Psychological needs that focus on emotional and mental satisfaction
- Murray theorized that most people have needs for achievement, autonomy, affilliation, dominance, exhibition and order. The strength of these motives varies from person to person, depending on personal history
- Hierarchy of needs the order of hierarchy is individual to self
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Term
| Determinants of achievement behaviour |
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Definition
- 1. the strength of one's motivation to achieve success. This view as a stable aspect of personality
- 2. One's estimate of the probability of success for the task at hand. This varies from task to task
- 3. The incentive value of success. This depends on the tangible and intangible rewards for success on the specific task
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Term
| Maslow's hierarchy of needs |
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Definition
- needs are motivators
- human beings have wants and desires(needs) which influence their behaviour. Only unsatisfied needs influence behaviour, satisfied needs do not
- since needs are many, they are arranged in order of importance from basic to complex
- Human motives are organized into a hierarchy of needs
- the further the progress up the hierarchy the more individuality, humanness and psychological health a person will show
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Term
| Modern approaches on motivation |
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Definition
- behaviour is energized and directed not by a single grand cause but, instead, by a multitude of multilevel and co-acting influences
- most motivational states need to be understood at multiple levels(neurological, cognitive, social...)
- motivation researchers emphasize the complex contribution of different motivational agents(neds, cognitions, emotions, and external events) to explain behaviour's energy and direction
- behaviour can be guided by a state or event(goal-attainment) that does not yet exist
- behaviour is controlled, not by present external or internal stimuli aline, but by a comparison between the existing state of affairs and a desired state of affairs
- individuals mental processes(cognition) play an important role in motivation
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Term
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Definition
- affective responses, which are characterized by changes in behaviour, subjective experience, and physiology
- Cognitive component: the conscious experience of intense feelings difficult to control
- Physiological component: involves bodily arousal which occurs through the autonomic nervous system. The hypothalmus and structures in the limbic system ar viewed as the seat of emotions
- the behavioural component: charcteristic overt expressions(smiles, frown, furrowed brows)
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Term
| James- Lange Theory of Emotion |
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Definition
- emphasizes the physiological determinants of emotion
- different patterns of autonomic activation lead to the experience of different emotions(emotions you experience is determined by a specific pattern of autonomic activation). People supposedly distinguish emotions such as fear, joy, anger on the basis of the exact configuration of physiological reactios they experience
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Term
| Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion |
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Definition
- emotion occurs when the thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex(creating the conscious experience of emotion) and to the autonomic nervous system(creating visceral arousal)
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Term
| S.Schachter Two-Fator Theory of Emotion |
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Definition
- the experience of emotion depends on two factors: Autonomic Arousal and Cognitive interpretation of that arousal
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Term
| Evolutionary Theories of Emotions |
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Definition
- emotions are largely innate reactions to certain stimuli
- emotions are immediatley recognizable under most conditions without much thought
- thought plays a relatively small thought in the role of emotion
- Emotions originate in subcortical brain structures which evolved before the brain areas in the cortex associated with complex thought.Emotions evolve before thought.
- Evolution has equipped humans with a small number of innate emotions
- Paul Ekman's study on emotio revealed 7 universal emotions: fear, anger, joy, disgust surprise, sadness, and contempt
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Term
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Definition
- development is the sequence of age-related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death
- development is a reasonably orderly, cumulative process that includes both the biological and behavioural changes that take place as people grow older
- development results from a dynamic interaction between biological maturation and environmental experience
- a stage is a developmental phase during which characteristic patterns of behaviour are exhibited and certain capacities are established
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Term
| Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development |
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Definition
- people evolve through 8 stages over life span
- each stage is marked by psychosocial conflic that involves confronting a fundamental question
- personality is shaped by how individuals deal with the psychosocial conflicts involving transitions in important relationships
- Challenges in social relations stimulate personality development throughout life
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Term
| Erikson's Psychosocial Stage Theory: Stages 1 and 2 |
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Definition
- Birth-1year: Trust vs Mistrust-> Infants must learn to trust others to cae for their basic needs. If caregiver are inconsistent or rejecting in their care, the infant may view the world filled with unreliable people. The mother or primary caregiver is the key social agent
- 1-3 years: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt-> children must learn to be autonomous(to feed and dress themselves etc). Failure to achieve this independence may force child t doubt his own abilities and feel shameful. Key social agents: parents
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Term
| Erikson's Psychosocial Stage Theory:Stages 3 and 4 |
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Definition
- 3- 5 years old: Initiative vs Guilt: Children attempt to act grown up and will try to accept responsibilities that are beyond their capacity to handle. They undertake goals or activities that conflict with those of parents, other family members, and these conflicts may make them feel guilty. Successful resolution of the crisis requires balance. The child must retain a sense of initiative and yet learn not to affect the rights of others.Key social agent is the family.
- 6-12 years:Industry vs Inferiority:Children must master important social and academic skills. The child compares him/herself with peers. If sufficiently industrious, children will acquire the social and academic skills to feel self-assured.Failure to acquire these attributes leads to feelings of inferiority.Significant social agents: teachers and peers
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Term
| Erikson's Psychosocial Stage Theory: Stages 5 and 6 |
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Definition
- 12-18 years: Identity vs Role Confusion: the adolescent struggles with the question "who am i?" Adolescents must establish basic social and occupational identities, or they will remain confused about the roles they should play as adults. The key social agent is the society of peers
- 20- 40 years: Intimacy vs Isolation: the primary task is to form strong friendships and to achieve love and companionship.Feelings of isolation or loneliness are likely to result fromm an inability to form friendships or an intimae relationship. Key social agents: lovers, spouses and close friends
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Term
| Erikson's Psychosocial Stage Theory:Stages 7 and 8 |
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Definition
- 40-65 years: Generavity vs Stagnation: Adults face the tasks of becoming productive in their work and raising their famillies and also looking after the needs of young people. Standards of generativity are defined by one's culture. Those who are unable or unwilling to assume these responsibilities will become self-centered. Significant social agents: spouse, children, cultural norms
- 65-death: Ego integrity vs despair: Older adult will look back at life viewing it as either meaningful, productive, and happy experiemce or a major disappointment full of unfullfilled promises and unrealized goals. One's life experiences, particularily social experiences will determine the outcome of this final life crisis. The outcome could be either a sense of fullfillment from a life well lived, a general feeling of satisfaction or despair depression, desolation
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Term
| Piaget's theory on cognitive development: Stage 1 |
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Definition
- Sensorimotor Period; Birth- 2 years
- infants develop the ability to coordinate their sensory input with their motor actions
- gradual appearance of symbolic thought; the child can use mental symbols to represent objects
- the key acquisition is the concept of object permanance
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Term
| Piaget's theory on cognitive development:Stage 2 |
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Definition
- Preoperational Period; 2 - 7 years
- children improve in the use of symbolic thought
- shortcomings in preoperational thought; lack of conservation
- conservation: the awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their appearance
- Centration: the tendency to focus on just one aspect of the problem while neglecting other important aspects
- Irreversibility: inability to envision reversing an action.Preoperational children can't mentally indo something
- Egocentrism: the tendency to view the world from one's own perspective.Inability to recognize another person's viewpoint. Children think that everyone else shares their perspective
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Term
| Piaget's theory on cognitive development: Stage 3 |
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Definition
- Concrete operational period; 7-11 years
- children begin to apply mental operations to concrete objects
- Reversibility: permits a child to mentally undo an action
- decentration: allows the child to focus on more than one feature of a problem simultaneuosly
- decline of egocentrism and gradual mastery of conservation
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Term
| Piaget's theory on cognitive development: Stage 4 |
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Definition
- Formal Operational Period: 11- adulthood
- children apply their mental operations to abstract concepts in addition to concrete objects
- thought processes in this stage can be characterized as abstract, systemic, logical, and reflective
- after children achieve formal operations, further development in thinking are changes in degree rather than fundamental changes in the nature of thinking
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Term
| Vygotsky's Sociocultural theory |
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Definition
- culture exterts great influence over how cognitive growth unfolds
- social interacton leads to continuous step by step changes in children's thought and behaviour that can vary greatly from culture to culture
- Children acquire cognitive skills through collaborative dialogues with more experienced members of their society
- children's cognitive development is fuelled by social interactions with parents, teachers,and older children who provide guidance
- language acquisition plays a central role in fostering cognitive development
- the sone proximal development " the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as development as determined through problem solving under adult guidane or in collaboration with more capable peers"
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Term
| Kohlberg's stage theory: Level 1 |
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Definition
- Preconventional morality
- younger children think in terms of external authority. Rules are truly external to the self rather than internalized. the child conforms to rules imposed by authority figures to avoid punishment or obtain personal rewards. Acts are wrong because they are ounished or right because they are rewarded
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Term
| Kohlberg's stage theory:Stage 2 |
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Definition
- conventional morality
- individual strived to obey rules and social norms in order to win others approval or to maintain social order
- right and wrong are determined by close others approval or disapproval
- right and wrong determined by society's rule and laws which should be obeyed rigidly. Older children see rules as necessary for maintaining social order
- moral thinking is relatively inflexible
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Term
| Kohlberg's stage theory:Level 3 |
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Definition
- Post conventional morality
- right and wrong are determined by society's rules which are viewed as fallible rather than absolute
- acceptance of rules is less rigidd and moral thinking shows more flexibility
- social norms can be rejected if they conflict with personal ethics
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Term
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Definition
- dynamic, organized, and relatively enduring set of psychological traits possessed by a person that distinctively influences the person's cognitions, motivations and behaviours; and consequently influences the person's interactions with, and adaptation to the social environment
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Term
| Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory |
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Definition
- Explanation of personality by focusing on:
- 1. the influence of early childhood experiences
- 2 the presence of unconscious motives and conflicts, How unconscious forces can influence behaviour and personality development
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Term
| Freud's Psychoanalytic theory: Structure of personality |
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Definition
- the id: primitive, instinctive. Ruled by the pleasure principle. Illogical, irrational fantasy oriented.
- The ego: the decision-making component. Ruled by the reality principle. Rational, realistic, problem solving oriented
- The superego: the moral component that incorporates social standards about what represents right and wrong
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Term
| Freud's Psychoanalytic theory: Levels of Awareness |
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Definition
- conscious: whatever one is aware of at a particular point in time.It houses one's current thoughts
- Preconscious: it contains material just beneath the surface of awareness that can be easily retrieved
- Unconscious: it contains difficult to retrieve feelings, memories, and desires that are well below the surface of conscious awareness but that exert great influence on behaviour
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Term
| Freud's Psychoanalytic theory: Defence Mechanisms |
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Definition
- largely unconscious reactions that protect a person from unpleasant emotions, such as anxiety and guilt
- Psychological strategies brought into play by the unconscious mind to manipulate, deny, or distort reality, and to maintain a socially acceptable self image
- Repression: keeping distressing thoughts and feelings out of conscious awareness. A traumatized soldier has no recollection of the deatils of a close brush with death
- Projection: attributing one's own thoughts, feelings or motives to another person. A woman who dislikes her boss, thinks that she likes him but feels that the boss doesn't like her
- Displacement: diverting emotional feelings to a substitute target. After parental scolding, a young girl takes her anger out on her little brother
- Regression: a reversion to immature patterns of behaviour. An adult has a temper tantrum when he doesn't get his way
- Rationalization: creating false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behaviour. A studeny watches TV instead of studying, saying that additional study wouldn't do any good anyway
- Reaction Formation: behaving in a way that is exactly the opposite of one's true feelings. A parent who unconsciously resents a child spoils the child with many gifts
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Term
| Behavioral Perspective: B.F Skinner |
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Definition
- personality is viewed as an individual's collection of response tendencies
- Skinner emphasizes the importance of what happens after behaviour occurs
- Environmental consequences determine people's patterns of responding
- Personality development os viewed as a continuous lifelong journey
- Reinforcement: the response is strengthened as consequence of favourable outcomes
- Punishment and extinction: the response gradually weakens and eventually disappears
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Term
| Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory |
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Definition
- people are self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting and self regukating
- Personality is shaped through observational learning
- observational learning occurs when the person's response is influenved by the observation of others
- People's characteristics pattern of behaviours are shaped by the models they are exposed to. Many response tendencies are the product of imitation
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Term
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Definition
- three basic assumptions
- people can control their biological urges
- people are conscious and rational beings who are not dominated by unconscious, irrational needs and conflicts
- a person's subjective view of the world is more important that objective reality
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Term
| Roger's person-centred theory |
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Definition
- key notion: the self
- Personality structure in terms of one construct: self-concept. A collection of beliefs about one's own nature, unique qualities, and typical behaviour
- the centrality of the self for understanding personality
- the relevance of others for our own views of self
- the implications of incongruence(disparity between self concept and actual experience) in the self system for dysfunctional emotions
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Term
| Trait Taxonomies Perspective |
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Definition
- a personality is a durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations
- peronality traits are enduring patterns of percieveing relating to, and thinking about the environment and oneself that ate exhibited in a wide range of social and personal contextst
- Trairs are relatively stable over time and across situations
- triats differ among individuals
- traits influence behaviour
- Psychological traits help describe people, help explain behaviour, help predict the future
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Term
| Eysenck's personality theory |
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Definition
- personality is largely determined by the person's genes, individuals differences in personality are determined by genetic factors
- There are properties in the brain and the central nervous system that corressponds to specific personality traits
- personality traits are inherited
- personality structure is viewed as a hieracrchy of traits
- all aspects of personality emerge from 3 higher order traits
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Term
| Five Factor Model of personality traits |
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Definition
- most personality traits are derived from five higher order traits:
- 1. Openness to experience
- 2. Conscientiousness
- 3. Extraversion
- 4. Agreeableness
- 5. Neuroticism
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