Term
| What are the four biological explanations of behavior and what are their definitions? |
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Definition
Physiological - understanding behavior based on the activity of the brain and other organs
Ontogenetic - understanding a behavior or structure based on its development in an individual
Evolutionary - understanding a behavior or structure based on its development in an individual
Functional - understanding why a behavior or structure evolved the way it did |
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Term
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Definition
| mRNA. It then codes sequences of amino acid. |
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Term
| What is DNA wound around? What does this create? |
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Definition
| Wound around histones, creates nucleosomes |
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Term
| What is the difference between sex-linked and sex-limited genes? |
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Definition
| Sex-linked are found on chromosomes but mainly active in 1 sex, sex-limited not on sex but effects based on sex |
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Term
| What is the difference between Homozygous and heterozygous? |
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Definition
| Homozygous genotypes are when both copies of a gene are mutated, heterozygous are when only one copy is affected. |
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Term
| What is the difference between a dominant and a recessive gene? |
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Definition
| Both genes need to be present for a recessive gene to be passed on, only one for a dominant gene. |
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Term
| What are the three possible mutations for heritable change in DNA? |
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Definition
| Substitution, duplication, and deletion (see slide 5) |
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Term
| What is the name for gene expression without modification for DNA? |
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Definition
| Epigenetic change (example: mothers who smoke during pregnancy may lead to altered DNA methylation in their children, increasing susceptibility to asthma) |
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Term
| What is the difference between monozygotic twins and dizygotic twins? |
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Definition
| There is a greater degree of resemblance in the monozygotic twins compared to the dizygotic twins, suggests a genetic contributions |
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Term
| Are genes directly responsible for behavior? |
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Definition
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Term
| Does evolution benefit genes, the individual, or the species? |
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Definition
| Genes. You don't spread your genes to reproduce, but you are the carrier of genes that need to be spread around. |
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Term
| What are the two animal models? |
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Definition
Minimalists - want to increase the potential benefit while minimizing stress to animals
Abolitionists - want to eliminate all animal research |
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Term
| What are the four major structures in a neuron? |
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Definition
| Dendrites, axons, soma (cell body), presynaptic terminals. |
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Term
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Definition
| Afferent sends nerve impulses towards the central nervous system, efferent sends away from the central nervous system. |
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Term
| The oculomotor nerve is ___ from the brain and is ___ to eye muscles. |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the difference between convergence and divergence? |
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Definition
Convergence: any neuron may have many other neurons synapsing on it. the neuron converts several incoming signals to a single outgoing signal. this increases sensitivity in the pathway, but it decreases precision. Allows different signals to reach one neuron for integration or computation.
Divergence: the axon terminals of each neuron branch out and synapse with many postsynaptic cells. the neuron converts one incoming signal to many simultaneous outgoing signals. this spreads out a signal and amplifies it |
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Term
| What are the main functions of astrocytes, a type of glia? |
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Definition
| Astrocytes synchronize axonal activity, remove waste material, control blood flow to different brain areas/vessel dilation, recycles released glutamate, and possibly transmits chemical signals. |
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Term
| What are the four types of glia other than astrocytes? What are their functions? |
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Definition
Microglia - removes waste, viruses, and fungi.
Oligodendrocytes - CNS; build myelin sheaths around axons.
Schwann cells - PNS; build myelin sheaths around axons.
Radial glia - guide migration of neurons during embryonic development; later differentiate into neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. |
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Term
| What are the two ways nutrients get into the blood-brain barrier? |
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Definition
| Active transport, passive transport. |
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Term
| Which nutrients cross into the blood-brain barrier through active transport? Passive transport? |
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Definition
Active transport allows glucose and amino acids into the brain (see book for full list)
Passive transport allows oxygen, carbon dioxide, and fat-soluble molecules like barbiturates to enter the brain. |
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Term
| Action potential diagram: What is happening at #1? Are Na+ molecules mostly inside or outside? K+ ions? What drives K+ ions into the cell and what drives them out of the cell? |
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Definition
Resting potential.
Na+ ions are mostly inside, K+ are mostly outside.
The concentration gradient and Na-K pump drives K+ into the cell, and the electrical gradient draws them out. Net flow is out of the cell if the K+ channels are open, but the Na-K pump keeps pulling in K+ ions as fast as the net flow is occurring. So K+ gradient never reaches equilibrium. |
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Term
| Action potential diagram: What is happening at #2? When do the Na+ channels close? |
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Definition
Depolarization.
The Na+ channels close at the peak of the action potential. Rate of exit reaches its peak when the channels close. |
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Term
| Action potential diagram: What is happening at #3? What's responsible for returning the membrane back to resting potential? |
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Definition
Repolarization.
Voltage-gated K+ channels are still open, so K+ ions can flow out of the axon. NOT the NA-K pump! |
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Term
| Action potential diagram: What is happening at #4? #5? #6? |
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Definition
4: Refractory period. Refractory period caused by closed Na+ channels, K+ ions are flowing out at faster than normal rate.
5: Threshold.
6: Stimulus. |
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Term
| How does a signal get propagated? |
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Definition
| Na+ ions enter to depolarize one area. Resulting voltage potential opens votalge-gated Na+ channels in the next adjacent area. This continues to the next adjacent area. |
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Term
| Describe the process of saltatory conduction. Is it faster than regenerating the action potential at each node? Does it conserve energy? If so, how? |
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Definition
| An action potential occurs at a node. Na+ ions enter at the node and diffuse along the axon toward the next node. This creates an action potential at the next node. The process is faster than regenerating the action potential at each node and conserves energy b/c they don't need to pump out sodium at every point. |
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Term
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Definition
| Specialized gaps between neurons. |
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Term
| **What were Sherrington's 3 main observations? |
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Definition
1. Reflexes are slower than conduction along an axon.
2. Several weak stimuli at slightly different times or slightly different locations produces a stronger reflex than a single stimulus does.
3. As one set of muscles relaxes, another set becomes excited. |
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Term
| Are reflexes slower than conduction along an axon? What causes the difference in speeds? |
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Definition
| Yes. The difference in the conduction speeds must be due to delays at the synapse. |
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Term
| What is the cumulative effect of multiple weak pinches? |
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Definition
| Each pinch generates a graded potential (EPSP). The multiple EPSPs can then combine to generate an action potential. |
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Term
| One set of muscles relax as the other contracts. What neurons are responsible? Which kind of signal is sent to the flexors, and which to the extensors? Which neurotransmitter is likely to mediate the inhibitory signal? |
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Definition
Interneurons are responsible.
Sends an excitatory signal to the flexors and an inhibitory signal to the extensors.
GABA is the neurotransmitter that mediates the signal. |
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Term
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Definition
EPSP: Depolarized postsynaptic membrane potential by the action potential of the presynaptic neuron.
IPSP: Hyperpolarized postsynaptic potential by the action potential of the presynaptic neuron. |
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Term
| What ion channels can open during an EPSP? During an IPSP? |
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Definition
EPSP: Sodium channels open and allow sodium to enter membrane.
IPSP: Potassium channels open and allowed to leave, chloride allowed to enter. |
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Term
| How to EPSPs and IPSPs modify the spontaneous firing rate? |
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Definition
| EPSPs increase the rate of firing, IPSPs decrease the rate of firing. |
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Term
| What is the difference between spatial and temporal summation? |
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Definition
| Temporal summation is repeated stimuli over a brief time period having a cumulative effect. Spacial summation is the cumulative effect of stimuli from different locations. |
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Term
| What is the sequence of events at a synapse? |
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Definition
1. Synthesis of neurotransmitters in the axon terminal; neuropeptides synthesized in the cell body.
2. Action potential travels down the axon. When it reaches the terminal, calcium enters the cell, releasing neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft via exocytosis.
3. Neurotransmitters attach to receptors.
4. Neurotransmitters detach from receptors.
5. Can either diffuse away or are taken back into the presynaptic cell, recycling them.
6. Some post synaptic cells will send messages to the presynaptic cell to control further release of neurotransmitter.
7. Negative feedback cycle - autoreceptors or postsynaptic cells controls neurotransmitter release. |
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Term
| How to autoreceptors and postsynaptic cells control neurotransmitter release? |
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Definition
Autoreceptors - presynaptic cell detects the amount of neurotransmitters it released, inhibits further release.
Post-synaptic cells - send inhibitory message to the presynaptic cell to inhibit further release. |
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Term
| What are almost all neurotransmitters synthesized from? |
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Definition
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Term
| Where are neurotransmitters synthesized and where are they stored? |
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Definition
| Synthesized in the pre-synaptic terminal and stored in vesicles. |
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Term
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Definition
| Monoamine oxidase is an enzyme that breaks down serotonin, dopamine, or norepinephrine if there is too much. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| What do neuropeptides require for release? |
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Definition
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Term
| When neurons deliver neuropeptides, where do they go? How long is the process? |
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Definition
| Neuropeptides diffuse to receptors throughout a wide area. Neighboring cells release the same neuropeptide. Lasts on order of minutes. |
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Term
| Where do hormones come from? How are they transferred? What do they trigger? |
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Definition
| Hormones are a chemical secreted by a gland or other cells. They are transported to other organs via blood to alter activity. They trigger long-lasting changes. |
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Term
| What does the hypothalamus synthesize in regard to hormones? |
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Definition
| The hypothalamus synthesizes oxytocin and vasopressin, which migrate to the posterior pituitary. Also secretes releasing hormones that control the anterior pituitary. |
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Term
| What kind of system does the hypothalamus utilize to maintain hormone levels? |
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Definition
| A negative-feedback system. |
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Term
| Define epinephrine and norepinephrine. |
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Definition
Epinephrine - Also known as adrenaline, epinephrine is a hormone and neurotransmitter transferred by the nervous system that creates a fight-or-flight response in the body. Present naturally in the adrenal glands, epinephrine raises the heart rate, constricts blood vessels, dilates pupils and suppresses the immune system.
Norepinephrine - Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter and hormone that also is part of the fight-or-flight response in the body. When norepinephrine is released in the body, it raises the heart rate, which causes glucose to be released as energy and blood to flow to the muscles. |
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Term
List what all of these hormones do:
Growth hormone
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Thyroid stimulating hormone:
Prolactin:
Follicle stimulating hormone:
Luteinizing hormone: |
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Definition
Growth hormone: Promotes growth throughout body
Adrenocorticotropic hormone: controls adrenal cortex section
Thyroid stimulating hormone: controls thyroid secretion
Prolactin: controls secretions of mammary glands
Follicle stimulating hormone:
Luteinizing hormone: |
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Term
| Ionotropic receptors are _____ channels. |
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Definition
| Ligand-gated/transmitter-gated channels. |
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Term
| Are the effects of ionotropic effects quick or slow? Why is this speed necessary? |
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Definition
| Quick. This is necessary for transmitting information that needs to be updated quickly, like visual information. |
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Term
| What are the excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters affiliated with ionotropic effects? |
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Definition
| Glutamate (excitatory) and GABA (inhibitory) |
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Term
| Metabotropic effects are quicker or slower than ionotropic? Why? |
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Definition
| Slower. For effects that don't rely on quick transmission. |
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Term
| What is the process of a metabotropic effect? |
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Definition
1. Neurotransmitter binds to receptor with attached G-protein
2. Receptor bends, releasing G-protein
3. G-protein activates a second messenger
4. Second messenger communicates a message to other parts of the cell |
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Term
| What do gap junctions connect? What is the benefit? |
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Definition
| Gap junctions connect the cytoplasm of both cells, allowing ions to pass freely. This allows faster signal transmission. |
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Term
| What is the difference between an agonist and an antagonist? |
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Definition
| Agonist is a drug that increases a neurotransmitter's effects and an antagonist is a drug that blocks a neurotransmitter. |
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Term
| Define affinity and efficacy. |
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Definition
| Affinity is how well a drug fits into a receptor. Efficacy is how likely it is to activate the receptor. |
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Term
| Explain liking vs. wanting. |
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Definition
| There are two components to reinforcement - pleasure and motivation. Small parts of NAcc respond to liking, larger parts respond to motivation. People who are addicted to drugs are highly motivated to keep taking them, even though they don't provide much pleasure anymore. |
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Term
| How do cocaine and amphetamines influence dopamine synapses? |
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Definition
| They inhibit the dopamine transporter, inhibiting dopamine reuptake. |
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Term
| How does nicotine affect dopamine synapses? |
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Definition
| Nicotine directly excites nicotinic receptors that release dopamine in the NAcc, therefore facilitating dopamine release. |
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Term
| How do opiates affect dopamine synapses? |
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Definition
| GABA inhibits the firing of dopamine receptors. When opiates attach to endorphin receptors, they inhibit neurons that release GABA, thereby reducing inhibition to dopaminergic neurons. If you get rid of dopamine in the NAcc, opiates still reinforce. |
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Term
| How do cannabinoids affect neurons? |
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Definition
| Attach to receptors on pre-synaptic neuron, inhibiting release of glutamate & GABA. |
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Term
| How do cannabinoids become addictive? |
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Definition
| The ventral tegmental area (VTA) has dopaminergic projections to NAcc. Cannabinoids attach to receptors on presynaptic neuron, where they inhibit release of GABA in the ventral tegmental area, therefore reducing inhibition of the VTA dopamine neurons. |
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Term
| What are the two types of alcoholism? |
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Definition
Type I - later and gradual onset (after 25), no gender differences, fewer relatives with alcoholism
Type II - early and rapid onset (before 25), more men than women, seems to be genetic (more relatives with alcoholism) |
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Term
| Alcoholics have less sensitive DRD4 receptors and more active COMT - what are these two things? |
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Definition
DRD4 is a dopamine receptor associated with impulsivity.
COMT is an enzyme that breaks down DA after release. If more active, breaks down more DA and you get less reinforcement. |
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Term
| What are antabuse and naloxone? |
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Definition
Anabuse - prevents acetaldehyde dehydrogenase from converting acetaldehyde (poisonous) into acetic acid
Naloxone - blocks opiate receptors and decreases pleasure from alcohol (Revia). Is an antagonist. |
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Term
| What is included in the CNS? |
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Definition
| The brain and spinal chord. |
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Term
| What is included in the PNS? |
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Definition
Somatic nervous system - consists of axons conveying messages from sense organs to CNS and CNS muscles.
Autonomic nervous system - controls automatic functions. |
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Term
| What is the difference betwen the Parasympathetic NS and the sympathetic NS? |
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Definition
Parasympathetic ns - vegetative, nonenergy responses, increases digestion, decreases heart rate, conserves energy, long pre-ganglionic axons, short post ganglionic axons
Sympathetic NS - fight or flight, increase breathing and heart rate, decrease in unnecessary functions, inputs to sweat glands, adrenal glands, muscles that constrict blood flow, and muscles and erect hairs of skin, short pre-ganglionic axons, long post-ganglionic axons |
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Term
| What is the Raphe system? |
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Definition
| Sens axons to forebrain, modifying readiness to respond. |
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Term
| What is the function of the Reticular formation? |
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Definition
| Controls motor areas of the spinal chord, projects to much of the cortex, adjusting arousal and attention. |
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Term
| What does the cerebellum control? |
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Definition
| Balance, coordination, shifting attention between auditory and visual stimuli, sensory timing. |
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Term
| What does the Medulla oblongata control? |
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Definition
| Vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, vomiting, salivation, coughing, sneezing via cranial nerves. |
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Term
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Definition
| Where motor tracts cross. Contain reticular formation and raphe system like medulla |
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Term
| What is contained in the hindbrain? |
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Definition
| Medulla oblongata, pons, and cerebellum. |
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Term
| What is contained in the midbrain? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the function of the tectum? What is contained in it? |
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Definition
| The tectum is the 'roof' of the midbrain, containing the superior and inferior colliculi. The function of the colliculi is related to visual and auditory information, respectively. |
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Term
| What is the function of the tegmentum? What is contained in it? |
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Definition
| The tegmentum is the 'floor' of the midbrain. It contains the substantia nigra, which produces dopamine, connects a pathway facilitating movement, and dies of in PD. |
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Term
| What is contained in the forebrain? (general) |
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Definition
| The forebrain contains the subcortical areas and the cerebral cortex. |
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Term
| What is contained in the forebrain? (specific) |
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Definition
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Pituitary glands
Basal ganglia
Basal forebrain (nucleus basalis)
Hippocampus |
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Term
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Definition
| The thalamus is a gate for sensory info (except olfaction), helps in focusing attention to particular stimuli |
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Term
| What is the hypothalamus? |
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Definition
| The hypothalamus alters hormone release, is important for motivated behaviors, feeding, drinking, temperature regulation, sexual behavior, and activity level. |
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Term
| What is the pituitary gland? |
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Definition
| The pituitary gland is an endocrine gland that produces hormones for the body in response to the hypothalamus. |
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Term
| Which part of the pituitary gland is more of an extension of the hypothalamus? |
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Definition
| The posterior pituitary gland. |
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Term
| What is the basal ganglia? |
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Definition
| Controls motor and cognitive functions - helps with learning how to do something, attention, language, planning, etc. |
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Term
| What is the basal forebrain? |
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Definition
| The basal forebrain controls attention, arousal, wakefulness. It receives input from the hypothalamus and basal ganglia, and projects into the cortex. |
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Term
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Definition
| The hippocampus stores memories for personal events. Damage of the HC results in anterograde amnesia as well as possibly retrograde amnesia. |
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Term
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Definition
| 3 membranes that surround the central nervous system, have pain receptors (unlike the brain) |
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Term
| If several neurons of the same visual cortex all respond best when retina is exposed to vertical bars of light, those neurons are probably in the same ____? |
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Definition
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Term
| How many layers of laminae are there? What is their nomenclature? Do they vary in thickness? |
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Definition
| There are six layers of laminae. I is the outermost, VI is the innermost. They do vary in thickness. |
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Term
| Can intelligence be explained by brain size? |
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Definition
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Term
| Do men or women have larger brains? |
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Definition
| While men have larger brains, men and women are equal in intellect. |
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Term
| What is the Bell-Magendie law? |
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Definition
| Entering dorsal roots carry sensory information and exiting dorsal roots carry motor information. |
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Term
| The autonomic nervous system is divided into: |
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Definition
| The sympathetic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system. |
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Term
| Sympathetic nervous system does what? |
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Definition
| Prepares the organs for rigorous activity. |
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Term
| Parasympathetic nervous system does what? |
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Definition
| Facilitates vegetative, nonemergency responses. |
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Term
| What is the outer portion of the forebrain referred to as? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the most prominent part of the mammalian brain? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the four lobes that divide the cerebral cortex? |
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Definition
| Frontal, occipital, parietal, and temporal. |
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Term
| Occipital lobe is responsible for what? |
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Definition
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Term
| Parietal lobe is responsible for what? |
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Definition
| Information about the eye, head and body positions from info sent from muscles and joints. |
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Term
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Definition
| Responsible for language, auditory input, some motivational behaviors |
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Term
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Definition
| primary motor cortex, higher functions like planning and abstract thought |
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Term
| What does proliferation refer to? |
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Definition
| The production of new cells/neurons in the brain - primarily in early life. |
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Term
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Definition
| The movement of newly formed neurons and glia to their eventual locations. |
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Term
| Differentiation refers to? |
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Definition
| The forming of the axon and dendrite that gives the neuron its distinctive shape. |
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Term
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Definition
| The process by which glia produce the fatty sheath that covers the axon of some neurons. |
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Term
| Synaptogenesis refers to? |
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Definition
| The formation of the synapses between neurons. |
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Term
| What do axons follow to reach their appropriate target? |
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Definition
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