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Definition
| The science of mental processes and behavior |
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Definition
| What the brain does when a person stores, recalls, or uses information or has specific feelings. |
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Definition
| The outwardly observable acts of an individual alone or in a group. |
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Definition
| Events that involve the structure and properties of the organ itself - brain cells and their connections, the chemical soup in which they exist, and the genes. |
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Definition
| Events that involve the nature of beliefs, desires, and feelings - the content of the mind, not just its internal mechanics. |
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| Events that involve relationships between people (such as love, competition, and cooperation), relationships among groups, and culture. Events at this level are one aspect of the environment; the other aspect is the physical environment itself (the time, temperature, and other physical stimuli). |
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| The process of "looking within." (Structuralists) |
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Definition
| An approach to understanding mental processes that focuses on the idea that the whole is more than the sum of its parts. |
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Definition
| Outside conscious awareness, and not able to be brought to consciousness at will. |
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| A theory of how thoughts and feeling affect behavior; refers to the continual push and pull interaction among conscious and unconscious forces. (Freud) |
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| The school of psychology that focuses on how a specific stimulus (object, person, or event) evokes a specific response (behavior in reaction to the stimulus). (Watson and Skinner ) |
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| The school of psychology that assumes people have positive values, free will, and deep inner creativity, the combination of which leads them to choose life fulfilling paths to personal growth. (Maslow) |
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| The approach in psychology that attempts to characterize how information is stored and operated on internally. (Neisser) |
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Definition
| A blending of cognitive psychology and neuroscience (the study of the brain) that aims to specify how the brain stores and processes information. |
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| The approach in psychology that assumes that certain cognitive strategies and goals are so important that natural selection has built them into our brains. (Barkow, Cosmides, and Tooby) |
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Definition
| The type of psychologist who provides psychotherapy and is trained to administer and interpret psychological tests. |
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Definition
| The process of helping clients learn to change so they can cope with troublesome thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. |
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| The type of psychologist who is trained to help people with issues that naturally arise during the course of life. |
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Definition
| A physician who focuses on mental disorders; unlike psychologists, psychiatrists can prescribe drugs, but they are not trained to administer and interpret psychological tests, nor are they trained to interpret and understand psychological research. |
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Definition
| A mental health professional who uses psychotherapy to help families (and individuals) and teaches clients to use social service systems in their communities. |
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Definition
| A nurse with a master degree and a clinical specialization in psychiatric nursing who provides psychotherapy and works with medical doctors to monitor and administer medications. |
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Definition
| The type of psychologist who focuses on teaching and conducting research. |
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Definition
| The type of psychologist who studies how to improve products and procedures and conducts research to help solve specific practical problems. |
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Definition
| The scientific method involves specifying a problem, systematically observing events, forming a hypothesis of the relation between variables, collecting new observations to test the hypothesis, using such evidence to formulate and support a theory, and finally testing the theory. |
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| Collecting the same observations or measurements and finding the same results as were found previously. |
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| An aspect of a situation that can vary, or change; specifically, a characteristic of a substance, quantity, or entity that is measurable. |
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Definition
| A tentative idea that might explain a set of observations. |
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Definition
| A definition of a variable that specifies how it is measured or manipulated. |
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| An interlocking set of concepts or principles that explain a set of observations. |
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| An expectation about specific events that should occur in particular circumstances if the theory or hypothesis is correct. |
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Definition
| A scientific study that focuses on a single instance of a situation, examining it in detail. |
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Definition
| A set of questions, typically about beliefs, attitudes, preferences, or activities. |
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Term
| Correlation Coefficient (Correlation) |
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Definition
| An index of how closely interrelated two sets of measured variable are, which ranges from -1.0 to +1.0. The higher the correlation (in either direction), the better we can predict the value of one type of measurement when given the value of the other. |
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Definition
| The aspect of the situation that is intentionally varied while another aspect is measured. |
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Definition
| The aspect of the situation that is measured as an independent variable is changed; the value of the dependent variable depends on the independent variable. |
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Definition
| The difference in the dependent variable that is due to the changes in the independent variable. |
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Term
| Confound (Confounding Variable) |
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Definition
| An independent Variable that varies along with the ones of interest, and could be the actual basis for what you are measuring. |
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Definition
| A group that receives the complete procedure that defines the experiment. |
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Definition
| A group that is treated exactly the same way as the experimental group, except that the one aspect of the situation being studied is not manipulated for this group. The control group holds constant - "controls"- all of the variables in the experimental group except the one of interest. |
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Definition
| The technique of assigning participants randomly, that is, by chance, to the experimental and the control groups, so that no biases can sneak into the composition of the groups. |
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Definition
| A part of a study in which the participant receives the complete procedure that defines the experiment. Usually this is accompanied by a control condition, with the same participants receiving both experimental and control conditions. |
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Definition
| A condition administered to the same participants who receive the experimental condition; this effectively makes the participants both the experimental and the control group. |
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Definition
| A statistical technique that allows researchers to combine results from different studies, which can determine whether there is a relationship among variables that transcends any one study. |
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Definition
| A group that is drawn from a larger population and measured or observed. |
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Definition
| The entire set of relevant people or animals. |
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Definition
| Data is reliable if the same results are obtained when the measurements are repeated. |
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Definition
| A measure is valid if it does in fact measure what it is supposed to measure. |
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Definition
| When beliefs, expectations, or habits alter how participation in a study respond or affect how a researcher sets up or conducts a study, thereby influencing its outcome. |
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Definition
| A tendency to respond in a particular way regardless of respondents' actual knowledge or beliefs. |
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Definition
| A bias that occurs when the participants or items are not chosen at random, but instead are chosen so that one attribute is over or underrepresented. |
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Term
| Experimenter Expectancy Effects |
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Definition
| Events that occur when an investigator's expectations lead him or her (consciously or unconsciously) to treat participants in a way that encourages them to product the expected results. |
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Term
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Definition
| The participant is "blind" to (unaware of) the predictions of the study (and so cannot consciously or unconsciously produce the predicted results), and the experimenter is "blind" to the condition assigned to the participant (and so the experimenter expectancy effects cannot produce the predicted results). |
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Definition
| Theories or statements that at first glance look like psychology, but are in fact superstition or unsupported opinion pretending to be science. |
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Definition
| The requirement that a potential participant in a study be told what he or she will be asked to do and be advised of possible risks and benefits of the study before agreeing to take part. |
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Definition
| An interview after a study to ensure that the participant has no negative reactions as a result of participation and understands why the study was conducted. |
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Term
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Definition
| A cell that receives signals from other neurons or sense organs, processes these signals, and sends the signals to other neurons, muscles, or organs; the basic unit of the nervous system. |
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Definition
| A neuron that responds to input from sense organs. |
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Definition
| A neuron that sends signals to muscles to control movement. |
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Definition
| A neuron that is connected to other neurons, not to sense organs or muscles. |
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Definition
| The central part of a neuron (or other cell), which contains the nucleus. |
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Definition
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Definition
| The sending end of the neuron; the long cablelike structure extending from the cell body. |
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Term
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Definition
| A structure at the end of a branch of an axon that, when the neuron is triggered, releases chemicals into the space between neurons. |
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Definition
| The treelike part of a neuron that receives messages from the axons of other neurons. |
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Term
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Definition
| The negative charge within a neuron when it is at rest. |
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Term
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Definition
| An atom that has a positive or negative charge. |
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Term
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Definition
| The shifting change in charge that moves down the axon. |
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Term
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Definition
| States that if the neuron is sufficiently stimulated, it fires, sending the action potential all the way down the axon and releasing chemicals from the terminal buttons; either the action potential occurs or it doesn't. |
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Term
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Definition
| A fatty substance that helps impulses travel down the axon more efficiently. |
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Term
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Definition
| The place where an axon of one neuron can send signals to the membrane (on a dendrite or cell body) of another neuron. |
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Term
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Definition
| The gap between the axon of one neuron and the membrane of another, across which communication occurs. |
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Term
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Definition
| A chemical that carries a signal from the terminal button on one neuron to the dendrite or cell body of another. |
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Term
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Definition
| A chemical that alters the effect of a neurotransmitter. |
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Term
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Definition
| Neuromodulators released by the receiving neuron that then influence the activity of the sending neuron. |
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Term
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Definition
| A site on a dendrite or cell body where a messenger molecule attaches itself; like a lock that is opened by one key, a receptor receives only one type of neurotransmitter or neuromodulator. |
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Term
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Definition
| The process by which surplus neurotransmitters are reabsorbed back into the sending neuron so that the neuron can effectively fire again. |
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Term
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Definition
| A chemical that mimic the effects of a neurotransmitter by activating a type of receptor. |
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Term
| Selective Serotonin-Reputake Inhibitor (SSRI) |
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Definition
| A chemical that blocks the reputake of the neurotransmitter serotonin. |
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Term
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Definition
| A chemical that interferes with the effect of a neurotransmitter (often by blocking a receptor). |
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Term
| Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) |
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Definition
| The autonomic nervous system and the sensory-somatic nervous system. |
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Term
| Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) |
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Definition
| Controls the smooth muscles in the body, some glandular functions, and many of the body's self- regulating activities, such as digestion and circulation. |
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Term
| Sympathetic Nervous System |
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Definition
| Part of the ANS that readies an animal to fight or flee by speeding up the heart, increasing breathing rate to deliver more oxygen, dilating the pupils, producing sweat, decreasing salivation, inhibiting activity in the stomach, and relaxing the bladder. |
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Term
| Parasympthetic Nervous System |
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Definition
| Part of the ANS that is "next to" the sympathetic system and that tends to counteract its effects. |
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Term
| Sensory-Somatic Nervous System (SSNS) |
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Definition
| Part of the PNS that consists of neurons in the sensory organs (such as the eyes and the ears) that convey information to the brain, as well as neurons that actually trigger muscles and glands. |
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Term
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Definition
| Consists of nerves that are attached to striated muscles. |
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Term
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Definition
| The flexible rope of nerves that runs inside the backbone, or the spinal column. |
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Term
| Central Nervous System (CNS) |
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Definition
| The spinal cord and the brain. |
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Term
| Central Nervous System (CNS) |
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Definition
| The spinal cord and the brain. |
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Term
| Central Nervous System (CNS) |
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Definition
| The spinal cord and the brain. |
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Term
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Definition
| An automatic response to an event. |
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Term
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Definition
| A left or right half-brain, shaped roughly like a half a sphere. |
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Term
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Definition
| The 4 major parts of each cerebral hemisphere - occipital, temporal, parietal, and frontal. |
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Term
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Definition
| The large band of nerve fibers that connect the 2 halves of the brain. |
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Term
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Definition
| The convoluted pinkish-gray outer layer of the brain, where most mental processes take place. |
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Term
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Definition
| Parts of the brain located under the cerebral cortex and beneath the ventricals. |
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Definition
| The brain lobe at the back of the head; concerned entirely with different aspects of vision. |
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Term
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Definition
| The brain lobe under the temples, in front of the ears, where sideburns begin to grow down; among its many functions are visual memory and hearing. |
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Term
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Definition
| The brain lobe across the top part of the brain behind the ears, which is involved in registering spatial location, attention, and motor control. |
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Term
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Definition
| The brain area, located immediately behind the central sulcus, that registers sensation on the body and is organized by body part. |
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Term
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Definition
| The brain lobe located behind the forehead;the seat of planning, memory search, motor control, and reasoning, as well as numerous other functions. |
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Term
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Definition
| The brain area, located immediately in front of the central sulcus, that controls fine movements and is organized by body part; also called the primary motor cortex. |
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Term
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Definition
| A person whose corpus Callosum has been severed for medical reasons, so that neuronal impulses no longer pass from one hemisphere to the other. |
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Term
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Definition
| A subcortical structure that receives inputs from sensory and motor systems and plays a crucial role in attention; often thought of as a switching center. |
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Term
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Definition
| A brain structure that sits under the thalamus and plays a central role in controlling eating and drinking and in regulating the body's temperature, blood pressure, and heart rate. |
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Term
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Definition
| A subcortical structure that plays a key role in allowing new information to be stored in the brain's memory banks. |
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Definition
| A subcortical structure that plays a special role in fear and is involved in other sorts of emotion, such as anger. |
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Term
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Definition
| A set of brain areas, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and other areas, that have long been thought of as being involved in fighting, fleeing, feeding, and sex. |
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Definition
| The lowest part of the lower brainstem, which plays a central role in automatic control of breathing, swallowing, and blood circulation. |
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Definition
| A collection of small structures in the brainstem, organized into 2 main parts: the "ascending" part plays a key role in keeping a person awake and alert; the descending part is important in producing autonomic nervous system reactions. |
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Definition
| A large structure in the base of the brain that is concerned in part with physical coordination, estimating time, and paying attention. |
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Term
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Definition
| A chemical that is produced by a gland and can act as a neuromodulator. |
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Term
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Definition
| A region of impaired tissue. |
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Definition
| A source of brain damage that occurs when blood (with its life-giving nutrients and oxygen) fails to reach part of the brain, causing neurons in that area to die. |
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Term
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Definition
| A machine that records electrical current produced by the brain. |
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Term
| Magnetoencephalography (MEG) |
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Definition
| A technique for assessing brain activity that relies on recording magnetic waves from outside of the head. |
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Term
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Definition
| A tiny probe inserted into the brain to record the electrical activity of individual neurons. |
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Term
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Definition
| Brain-Scanning techniques that produce a picture of the structure or functioning of neurons. |
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Term
| Computer Assisted Tomography (CT, formerly CAT) |
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Definition
| A neuroimaging technique that produces a 3D image of the brain structures using X-rays. |
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Term
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) |
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Definition
| A technique that uses magnetic properties of atoms to take sharp pictures of the structures of the brain. |
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Term
| Positron Emission Tomography (PET) |
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Definition
| A neuroimaging technique that uses small amounts of radioactive substance to track blood flow or energy consumption in the brain. |
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Term
| Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) |
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Definition
| A type of MRI that usually detects the amount of oxygen being brought to a particular place in the brain while a task is performed. |
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Term
| Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) |
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Definition
| A technique in which the brain is stimulated from outside by putting a wire coil on a persons head and delivering a magnetic pulse. The magnetic fields are so strong that they make neurons under the coil fire. |
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Term
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Definition
| The transmission of characteristics by individual elements of inheritance (genes), each acting separately. |
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Term
| Deoxyribonecleic Acid (DNA) |
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Definition
| The molecule that contains genes. |
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Term
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Definition
| A stretch of DNA that produces a specific protein. |
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Definition
| The genetic code within an organism. |
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Definition
| The observable structure and behavior of an organism. |
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Definition
| The joint action of combinations of genes working together. |
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Definition
| The brain's ability to be molded by experience. |
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Definition
| Gene-based changes in the characteristic of members of a species over successive generations. |
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Definition
| Changes in the frequency of genes in a population that arise because genes allow an organism to have more offspring that survive. |
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Definition
| A characteristic that increases an organism's fitness for an environment. |
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Definition
| The awareness of properties of an object or event that occurs when a type of receptor (such as those at the back of the eye, in the ear, on the skin) is stimulated. |
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Term
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Definition
| The act of organizing and interpreting sensory input as signaling a particular object or event. |
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Term
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Definition
| The height of the peaks in a light wave. |
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Term
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Definition
| The number of waves per second that move past a given point. |
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Term
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Definition
| The distance between the arrival of peaks of a light wave (measured in nanometers); shorter wavelengths correspond to higher frequencies. |
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Term
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Definition
| The process whereby physical energy is converted by a sensory neuron into neural impulses. |
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Term
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Definition
| The opening in the eye through which light passes. |
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Term
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Definition
| The circular muscle that adjusts the size of the pupil. |
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Term
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Definition
| The transparent covering over the eye, which serves partly to focus the light onto the back of the eye. |
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Term
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Definition
| Occurs when muscles adjust the shape of the lens so that it focuses light on the retina from objects at different distances. |
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Term
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Definition
| A sheet of tissue at the back of the eye containing cells that convert light to neural impulses. |
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Term
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Definition
| The small, central region of the retina with the highest density of cones and the highest resolution. |
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Term
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Definition
| Rod-shaped retinal cells that are very sensitive to light but register only shades of gray. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cone-shaped retinal cells that respond most strongly to one of three wavelengths of light; the combined outputs from cones that are most sensitive to different wavelengths play a key role in producing color vision. |
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Term
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Definition
| The large bundle of nerve fibers carrying impulses from the retina into the brain. |
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Term
| Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision |
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Definition
| The theory that color vision arises from the combinations of neural impulses from three different kinds of sensors, each of which responds maximally to a different wavelength. |
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Term
| Opponent Process Theory of Color Vision |
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Definition
| The theory that if a color is present, it causes cells that register it to inhibit the perception of the complementary color (such as red vs. green). |
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Term
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Definition
| The image left behind by a previous perception. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cells that put the colors in a pair, most noticeably blue/yellow or red/green, against each other. |
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Term
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Definition
| An inability, either acquired (by brain damage) or inherited, to perceive certain hues. |
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Term
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Definition
| In perception, a set of characteristics (such as shape, color, texture) that corresponds to an object. |
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Term
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Definition
| In perception, the background, which must be distinguished in order to pick out figures. |
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Term
| Gesalt laws of Organization |
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Definition
| A set of rules describing the circumstances - such as proximity, good continuation, similarity, closure, and good form - under which marks will be grouped into perceptual units. |
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Term
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Definition
| The perception of characteristic that occurs when an object or quality (such as shape or color) looks the same even though the sensory information striking the eyes changes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Seeing an object as being the same size when being viewed at different distances. |
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Term
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Definition
| Seeing objects as the same shape even when the image on the retina changes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Seeing objects as having the same color in different viewing situations. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cues to the distance of an object that arise from both eyes working together. |
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Term
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Definition
| The degree to which the eyes are crossed when a person fixates on an object. |
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Term
| Retinal Disparity (aka Binocular Disparity) |
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Definition
| The difference the images striking the retinas of the two eyes. |
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Term
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Definition
| Information that specifies the distance of an object that can be picked up with one eye without movement of the object or eye. |
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Term
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Definition
| Progressive change in texture that signals distance. |
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Term
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Definition
| Information that specifies the distance of an object on the basis of its movement. |
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Term
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Definition
| Processing that is initiated by stimulus input. |
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Term
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Definition
| Processing that is guided by knowledge, expectation, or belief. |
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Term
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Definition
| The sum of your assumptions and beliefs that lead you to expect to perceive certain objects or characteristics in particular contexts. |
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Term
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Definition
| The act of focusing on particular information, which allows it to be processed more fully than what is not attended to. |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of picking out a particular quality, object, or event for relatively detailed analysis. |
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Term
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Definition
| Phenomenon that occurs when a stimulus is sufficiently different from the ones around it that it is immediately evident. |
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Term
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Definition
| A measure of loudness on a base 10 logarithmic scale; the threshold for hearing is set at 0dB. |
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Term
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Definition
| The theory that higher frequencies produce higher rates of neural firing. |
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Term
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Definition
| The theory that different frequencies activate different places along the basilar membrane. |
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Term
| Cocktail Party Phenomenon |
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Definition
| The effect of not being aware of other peoples conversations until your name is mentioned, and then suddenly hearing it. |
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Term
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Definition
| A procedure in which participants hear stimuli presented separately to the 2 ears (through headphones) and are instructed to listen only to sounds presented to one ear. |
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Term
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Definition
| Chemicals that function like hormones but are released outside the body (in urine and sweat). |
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Term
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Definition
| Microscopic structures on the bumps on the tongue surface, at the back of the throat, and inside the cheeks; different types of taste buds are sensitive to sweet, sour, salty, and bitter tastes and to glutimate. |
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Term
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Definition
| Senses that have to do with perceiving the body and its position in space - specifically kinesthetic sense, vestibular sense, touch, temperature sensitivity, pain sense, and possibly magnetic sense. |
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Term
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Definition
| The sense that registers the movement and position of the limbs. |
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Term
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Definition
| The sense that provides information about the body's orientation relative to gravity. |
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Term
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Definition
| Painkilling chemicals produced naturally in the brain. |
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Term
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Definition
| A medically inactive substance that is presented as though it has medicinal effects. |
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Term
| Extrasensory Perception (ESP) |
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Definition
| The ability to perceive and know things without using the ordinary senses. |
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Term
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Definition
| A relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience. |
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Term
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Definition
| The learning that occurs when repeated exposure to a stimulus decreases an organism's responsiveness to the stimulus. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes paired (associated) with a stimulus that causes a reflexive behavior and, in time, is sufficient to produce that behavior. |
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Term
| Unconditioned Stimulus (US) |
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Definition
| A stimulus that elicits an automatic response (UR), without requiring prior learning. |
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Term
| Unconditioned Response (UR) |
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Definition
| The reflexive response elicited by a particular stimulus. |
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Term
| Conditioned Stimulus (CS) |
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Definition
| An originally neutral stimulus that acquires significance through pairings with an unconditioned stimulus (US). |
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Term
| Conditioned Response (CR) |
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Definition
| A response that depends, or is conditional, on pairings of the conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus; once learned the conditioned response occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented alone. |
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Term
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Definition
| In classical conditioning, learning that occurs when a CS is paired with an unpleasant US that leads the organism to try to avoid the CS. |
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Term
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Definition
| An irrational fear of a specific object or situation. |
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Term
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Definition
| A built-in readiness for certain conditioned stimuli to elicit particular conditioned responses, so less conditioning (training) is necessary to produce learning. |
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Term
| Extinction (Classical Conditioning) |
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Definition
| In classical conditioning, the process by which a CR comes to be eliminated through repeated presentations of the CS without the presence of the US. |
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Term
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Definition
| In classical conditioning, the event that occurs when the CS again elicits the CR after extinction has occurred. |
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Term
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Definition
| A tendency for the CR to be elicited by the neutral stimuli that are like, but not identical to, the CS; in other words, the response generalizes to similar stimuli. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to distinguish among stimuli similar to the CS and to respond only to the actual CS. |
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Term
| Food Aversion (Taste Aversion) |
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Definition
| A classically conditioned avoidance of a certain food or taste. |
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Term
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Definition
| The process by which a behavior becomes associated with its consequences. |
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Term
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Definition
| The process by which consequences lead to an increase in the likelihood that the response will occur again. |
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Term
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Definition
| An object or event that comes after a response and that changes the likelihood of its recurrence. |
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Term
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Definition
| Occurs when a desired reinforcer is presented after a behavior , thereby increasing the likelihood of a recurrence of that behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| Occurs when an unpleasant event or circumstance that follows a behavior is removed, thereby increasing the likelihood of recurrence of the behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| Occurs when a behavior leads to and undesired consequence, thereby decreasing the likelihood of a recurrence of that behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| An even or object, such as food, water of relief from pain, that is inherently reinforcing. |
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Term
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Definition
| An event or object, such as attention, money, praise, a good grade, or a promotion, that is reinforcing but that does not inherently satisfy a physical need. |
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Term
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Definition
| A technique that brings about therapeutic change in behavior through the use of secondary reinforcers. |
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Term
| Extinction (op. conditioning) |
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Definition
| In operant conditioning, the fading out of a response following an initial burst of that behavior after the withdrawal of reinforcement. |
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Term
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Definition
| In operant conditioning, the process by which an old response reappears if there is a period of time after extinction. |
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Term
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Definition
| The gradual process of reinforcing an organism for behavior that gets closer to the desired behavior. |
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Term
| Successive Approximations |
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Definition
| The series of smaller behaviors involved in shaping a complex behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| The acquisition of information that often is not immediately acted on but is stored for later use. |
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Term
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Definition
| Learning that occurs without behavioral signs. |
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Term
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Definition
| Learning that occurs when a person or animal suddenly grasps what something means and incorporates that new knowledge into old knowledge. |
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Term
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Definition
| Learning that occurs through watching others, not through reinforcement. |
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