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| Sensation- the process that occurs when the senses detect stimuli and transmit them to the brain. |
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| - the process that occurs when the sensory information is organized and interpreted by the brain |
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| Highly specialized cells in the sense organs that detect and respond to one type of sensory stimulus—light, sound, or odor, for example—and transduce (convert) the stimuli into neural impulses |
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| sensory receptors that change the stimulation into neural impulses and transmit them into the right part of your brain |
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| trichromatic theory of color vision |
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Definition
| (Thomas Young, 1802) the theory of color vision suggesting that three types of cones in the retina each make a maximal chemical response to one of three colors—red, blue, or green |
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| the theory of color vision suggesting that three kinds of cells respond by increasing or decreasing their rate of firing when different colors are present |
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| sound waves must have air, water, or solid objects; no hearing in a vacuum |
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| the theory of hearing that holds that hair cell receptors vibrate the same number of times per second as the sounds that reach them |
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a theory of how pain works, works like a gate to block or transmit pain messages.
feel pain when messages carried by small, slow conducting nerve fibers reach the gate and cause it to open.
large, fast conducting nerve fibers carry other messages from the body
and cause traffic at the gate so it will close and keep many pain messages from getting through (rubbing, icing, heat) |
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| the sense providing information about the position and movement of body parts |
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| the sense that provides information about the body’s orientation in space |
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| Gestalt- a german word that roughly refers to the whole for, pattern, or configuration that a person perceives (Figure-ground, similarity, proximity, continuity, closure) |
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| as we view the world, some object (the figure) often seems to stand out from the background (the ground). |
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| Objects that have similar characteristics are perceived as a unit. |
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| Objects that are close together in space or time are usually perceived as belonging together. |
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| We tend to perceive figures or objects as belonging together if they appear to form a continuous pattern such as a line or a wave. |
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| We perceive figures with gaps in them to be complete. |
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| the phenomenon that allows us to perceive objects as maintaining stable properties, such as size, shape, and brightness, despite the differences in distance, viewing angle, and lighting. (size consistency, shape consistency, brightness consistency) |
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| a. When you watch someone walk away, the information that the retina sends to the brain (the sensation that the person is shrinking in size) does not fool the perceptual system. As objects of people move farther away, you continue to perceive them as being about the same size |
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| b. The shape or image of an object projected onto the retina changes according to the angle from which it is viewed. But your perceptual ability includes shape consistency—the tendency to perceive objects as having a stable or unchanging shape, regardless of changes in the retinal image resulting from differences in viewing angle. A door is always rectangle, a plate is always rounded. |
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| c. We normally see objects as maintaining a constant level of brightness, regardless of differences in lighting conditions (brightness consistency). Nearly all objects reflect some part of the light that falls on them, and white objects reflect more than black ones. However, a black asphalt driveway at noon in bright sunlight actually reflects more light than a white shirt does indoors at night in dim lighting. Nevertheless, the driveway still looks black, and the shirt still looks white. This is because we learn to infer the brightness of an object by comparing it with the brightness of all other objects viewed at the same time. |
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Definition
| the ability to perceive the visual world in three dimensions and to judge distances accurately |
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| Information processing in which previous experience and conceptual knowledge are applied to recognize the whole of a perception and thus easily identify the simpler elements of that whole |
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| information processing in which individual components or bits of data are combined until a complete perception is formed |
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| - an expectation of what will be perceived, which can affect what is actually perceived |
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| Includes everything of which we are aware at any given time, our thoughts, feelings, mental processes, and events outside ourselves. |
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| altered states of consciousness |
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| changes in awareness caused by meditation, hypnosis, and drugs |
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Definition
No rapid eye movement. 4 stages:
1. transition period of drowsiness between waking and sleeping
2. somewhat more deeply asleep
3. beginning of slow wave sleep
4. delta waves reach nearly 100% |
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| Rapid eye movement. 20-25% of adult sleep, intense brain activity, dreaming occurs here |
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| the time during a 24-hour period when the biological clock is telling a person to go to sleep |
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| a period of time lasting about 90 minutes and including one or more stages of NREM sleep followed by REM sleep. a. About 40 minutes after we enter Stage 4 sleep, delta waves disappear. When that happens, we transition back through Stage 3 and Stage 2 until we reach Stage 1 again. As we reenter Stage 1, our pathway through the night takes a brief side trip into REM. During that time our brains are highly active. Epinephrine is released into the system, causing blood pressure to rise and heart rate and respiration to become faster and less regular. However, there is an external calm during REM. The large muscles of the body become paralyzed. |
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| the theory that the function of sleep is to restore the body and mind |
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| the theory that sleep evolved to keep humans out of harm’s way during the night; also known as the evolutionary or adaptive theory. |
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| dreams satisfy unconscious sexual and aggressive wishes |
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| Freud's term for the content of a dream as recalled by the dreamer |
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| Freud's term for the underlying meaning of a dream |
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| activation-synthesis hypothesis of dreaming |
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Definition
| the hypothesis that dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of the random firing of brain cells during REM sleep |
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Definition
| behaviors and states that normally occur while awake happen during sleep: somnambulism(sleep walking, sleep terror, nightmares, somniloquy(sleep talking) |
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a sleep disorder characterized by periods during sleep when breathing stops and the individual must awaken briefly in order to breathe.
a. surgeries, b. sleep machine |
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Definition
an incurable sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and uncontrollable attacks of REM sleep.
a. stimulants during the day can help |
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Definition
a sleep disorder characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep, by waking too early, or by sleep that is light, restless, or of poor quality.
a. having a ritual, b. bed at the same time, c. using bedroom strictly for sleep |
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| continued use of a substance that affects and individual's work, education, and social relationships |
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| any substance that alters mood, perception, or thought; called a controlled substance if approved for medical use |
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a category of drugs that speed up activity in the central nervous system, suppress appetite, and can cause a person to feel more awake, alert, and energetic; also called “uppers”
i. Stimulants such as amphetamines and cocaine mimic the effects of epinephrine, the neurotransmitter that triggers the sympathetic nervous system. The effects of the sympathetic nervous system include suppressed hunger and digestion; this is why “diet pills” typically contain some kind of stimulant, such as caffeine. |
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a category of drugs that decrease activity in the central nervous system, slow down bodily functions, and reduce sensitivity to outside stimulation; also called “downers”
i. Depressants such as alcohol, barbituarates, and benzodiazepines (Valium and Librium) act on GABA receptors to produce a calming, sedating effect. Thus, depressants can play a role in reducing a patient’s nervousness prior to undergoing a medical procedure |
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a class of depressant drugs derived from the opium poppy that produce both pain-relieving and calming effects
i. Opiates such as morphine and heroin mimic the effects of the brain’s own endorphins, chemicals that have pain-relieving properties and produce a feeling of well-being. For this reason, opiates are useful in pain management. |
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Definition
| a category of drugs that can alter and distort perceptions of time and space, alter mood, produce feelings of unreality, and cause hallucinations; also called psychedelics |
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Definition
| when substance abuse turns to full blown substance dependence |
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| psychological drug dependence |
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Definition
| a craving or irresistible urge for a drug's pleasurable effects |
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Term
| physical drug dependence- |
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Definition
| a compulsive pattern of drug use in which the user develops a drug tolerance coupled with unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug use is discontinued |
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Definition
| a condition in which the user becomes progressively less affected by the drug and must take increasingly larger doses to maintain the same effect or high |
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Definition
| a procedure through which one person, the hypnotist, uses the power of suggestion to induce changes in thoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions, or behavior in another person, the subject |
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Definition
| a group of techniques that involve focusing attention on an object, a word, one's breathing, or one's body movements in an effort to block out all distractions, to enhance well-being, and to achieve and altered state of consciousness |
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Definition
| a relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, capability, or attitude that is acquired through experience and cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or maturation |
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Definition
| a type of learning through which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another |
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| any event or object in the environment to which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another |
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Definition
| Pavlov was engaged in research aimed at clarifying the role of saliva in the process of digestion. While trying to reach this goal, he developed a procedure for collecting and measuring the amount of saliva in a dog’s mouth. He wanted to collect the saliva that the dogs would secrete naturally in response to food placed in the mouth. |
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| i. Observed drops of saliva collecting in the containers when the dogs heard the footsteps of the lab assistants coming to feed them and when the dogs heard their food dishes rattling, saw the attendant who fed them, or spotted their food. |
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b. Began studying how an involuntary response such as salivation be associated with sights and sounds involved in feeding
i. Used tones, bells, buzzers, lights, geometric shapes, electric shocks, and metronomes in conditioning experiments
ii. Dogs do not need to be conditioned to salivate to food, it is an unlearned response (Unconditioned response- a response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus(-a stimulus that elicits a specific unconditioned response without prior learning) without prior learning)
iii. Would present dog with musical tone around 20+ times and the tone would elicit salivation, (conditioned stimulus- a neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes associated with it and elicit a conditioned response (-the learned response that comes to be elicited by a conditioned stimulus as a result of its repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus))
iv. Discovered higher-order conditioning-conditioning that occurs when conditioned stimuli are linked together to form a series of signals |
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Definition
| the learned response that comes to be elicited by a conditioned stimulus as a result of its repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus |
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Definition
| a response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning |
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Definition
| a neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes associated with it and elicit a conditioned response |
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Definition
| a stimulus that elicits a specific unconditioned response without prior learning |
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| higher order conditioning |
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Definition
| conditioning that occurs when conditioned stimuli are linked together to form a series of signals |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, the weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response as a result of repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus |
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Definition
| the reappearance of an extinguished response (in weaker form) when an organism is exposed to the original conditioned stimulus following a rest period. |
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Definition
| the reappearance of an extinguished response (in weaker form) when an organism is exposed to the original conditioned stimulus following a rest period. |
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Definition
a. Watson and Raynor conducted a study to prove that fear could be classically conditioned by scaring the hell out of an 11-month old child. He would strike a hammer against a steel bar next to his head, which scared him. Then presented him with a white rat (amongst other things), which did not. Then every time he showed Little Albert the rat, he struck the steel bar. He was terrified of the masks, and I think he probably suffered PTSD as an adult. That is an awful experiment and almost made me cry.
i. Little Albert generalized to a rabbit and somewhat less, a dog, a seal coat, Watson’s hair, and a Santa Claus mask 5 days later
ii. After 30 days, Little Albert’s fear was still evident, however, less intense.
iii. Conclusion: conditioned fears “persist and modify personality throughout life”
iv. Watson showed no regard for the child’s welfare and now there are strict rules on the ethics of studies on animals and humans |
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a. 3-year-old Peter was afraid of white rabbits. Over the course of time the fed Peter candy while moving the cage closer and closer. Eventually the brought in some of Peter’s friends to play with the rabbit. After a while, they sat the rabbit on Peter’s lap and he was no longer afraid.
b. Some of the ideas of removing fears have been used as groundwork for certain behavioral therapies used today. |
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Definition
One of Thorndike’s laws of learning, which states that the consequence, or effect, of a response will determine whether the tendency to respond in the same way in the future will be strengthened or weakened.
a. A cat was placed in slatted box with a pedal to push (or loop to pull) to gain access to food. At first the cat would scratch, claw, or bite the box and accidentally trigger it to open until he finally trained to open it immediately. |
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Definition
| a type of learning in which the consequences of behavior are manipulated so as to increase or decrease the frequency of an existing response or to shape an entirely new response |
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Definition
skinner’s research revealed that the process begins with an operant (-voluntary behavior that accidentally brings about a consequence). A consequences that increases the frequency of an operant is known as a reinforcer (-anything that follows a response and strengthens it or increases the probability that will occur), while one that decreases an operant’s frequency is called a punisher.
a. First rewarded for turning toward the bar
b. Next reward is when it moves closer
c. Each step is rewarded
d. Reward for touching the bar
e. Finally for pressing the bar
f. Commonly used a Skinner box (-a soundproof chamber with a device for delivering food to an animal subject)
i. Skinner also invented the cumulative recorder that records the pressing of the bar |
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Definition
| an operant conditioning technique that consists of gradually molding a desired behavior (response) by reinforcing any movement in the direction of the desired response, thereby gradually guiding the responses toward the ultimate goal. |
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Definition
| a stimulus that signals whether a certain response or behavior is likely to be rewarded, ignored, or punished |
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Definition
| any pleasant or desirable consequence that follows a response and increases the probability that the response will be repeated |
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| the termination of an unpleasant condition after a response, which increases the probability that the response will be repeated |
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Definition
| a reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning |
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Definition
| a reinforcer that is acquired or learned through association with other reinforcers |
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| gives you a reinforcer every time you use the right procedure |
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| only gives you a reinforcer intermittenly |
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| a schedule in which a reinforcer is given after a fixed number of correct, non-reinforced responses |
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Definition
| a schedule in which a reinforcer is given after a varying number of non-reinforced responses, based on an average ratio |
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Definition
| a schedule in which a reinforcer is given following the first correct response after a specific period of time has elapsed |
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Definition
| a schedule in which a reinforcer is given after the first correct response that follows a varying time of nonreinforcement, based on an average time |
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Definition
| the removal of a pleasant stimulus or the application of an unpleasant stimulus, thereby lowering the probability of a response. |
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Definition
| learning to avoid events or conditions associated with aversive consequences or phobias |
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Definition
| learning to perform a behavior because it prevents or terminates an aversive event |
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| a passive resignation to aversive conditions that is learned through repeated exposure to inescapable or unavoidable aversive events |
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Definition
| the sudden realization of the relationship between elements in a problem situation, which makes the solution apparent |
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| learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior; learning by imitation |
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Definition
| the mental processes that are involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using information that include sensation, perception, imagery, concept formation, reasoning, decision making, problem solving, and language |
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Definition
| the representation in the mind of a sensory experience--visual, auditory, gustatory, motor, olfactory, or tactile |
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Definition
| a mental category used to represent a class or group of objects, people organizations, events, situations, or relations that share common characteristics or attributes |
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Term
| two types of concepts(formal) |
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Definition
| a concept that is clearly defined by a set of rules, a formal definition, or a classification system |
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| two types of concepts(natural) |
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Definition
| a concept acquired not from a definition, but through every day perceptions and experiences |
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Definition
| the individual instances, or examples, of a concept that are stored in memory from personal experience |
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| an example that embodies the most common and typical features of a concept |
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Definition
| the process of considering alternatives and choosing among them |
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Definition
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Definition
| a rule of thumb that is derived from experience and used in decision making and problem solving, even though there is no guarantee of its accuracy or usefulness |
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Definition
| a cognitive rule of thumb that says that the perceived probability of an event or the importance assigned to it is based on its availability in memory |
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Definition
| a thinking strategy based on how closely a new object or situation is judged to resemble or match an existing prototype of that object or situation |
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Definition
| the way information is presented so as to emphasize either a potential gain or a potential loss as the outcome |
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Definition
| thoughts and actions required to achieve a desired goal that is not readily attainable: trial and error, algorithm, working backwards, means-ends analysis, analogy heuristic |
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Term
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Definition
| the individual instances, or examples, of a concept that are stored in memory from personal experience |
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Term
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Definition
| an example that embodies the most common and typical features of a concept |
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Definition
| the process of considering alternatives and choosing among them |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| a rule of thumb that is derived from experience and used in decision making and problem solving, even though there is no guarantee of its accuracy or usefulness |
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Term
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Definition
| a cognitive rule of thumb that says that the perceived probability of an event or the importance assigned to it is based on its availability in memory |
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Term
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Definition
| a thinking strategy based on how closely a new object or situation is judged to resemble or match an existing prototype of that object or situation |
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Term
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Definition
| the way information is presented so as to emphasize either a potential gain or a potential loss as the outcome |
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Definition
| thoughts and actions required to achieve a desired goal that is not readily attainable: trial and error, algorithm, working backwards, means-ends analysis, analogy heuristic |
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Definition
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| start with goal and work backwards to figure out steps |
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Definition
| compare present position to goal, how do I get there? |
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Definition
| apply a solution used with a similar past problem |
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| obstacles to problem solving(functional fixedness) |
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Definition
| the failure to use familiar objects in novel ways to solve problems because of a tendency to view objects only in terms of their customary functions |
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Term
| obstacles to problem solving (mental set) |
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Definition
| the tendency to apply a familiar strategy to the solution of a problem without carefully considering the special requirements of that problem |
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Term
| linguistic relativity hypothesis |
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Definition
the notion that the language a person speaks largely determines the nature of that person’s thoughts
a. People’s worldview is constructed primarily by the words in their language
i. The languages used by the Inuit people have a number of different words for snow (first falling, spread out, and drinking water snow), while the English speaking world has one.
b. Whorf claimed that such a rich and varied selection of words for various snow types and conditions enabled the Inuit to think differently about snow than those whose languages lack such a range of words
c. Eleanor Rosch did a test with English speaking Americans and the Dani from New Guinea, who has only two names for colors (dark, cool, and bright, warm).
i. Showed them single colored chips of 11 colors for 5 seconds each, then they had to select, after 30 seconds, which colors they had viewed
ii. The outcome showed that the Americans and Dani had no significant differences and did not show the linguistic relativity hypothesis |
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Term
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Definition
| an individual's ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles through mental efforts |
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Term
| triarchic theory of intelligence |
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Definition
| Stenberg's theory that there are three types of intelligence: componential, experiential, contextual |
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Term
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Definition
| (analytical)- refers to the mental abilities most closely related to success on conventional IQ and achievement tests |
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Definition
| (creative)-reflected in creative thinking and problem solving |
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| (practical)- common sense "street smarts"; people with high contextual intelligence are survivors, who capitalize on their strengths and compensate for their weaknesses |
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Definition
| the ability of a test to yield nearly the same score when the same people are tested and then retested on the same test or an alternative form of the test |
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Definition
| the ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure |
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Definition
| establishing norms for comparing the scores of people who will take a test in the future; administering tests using a prescribed procedure |
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| the debate over whether intelligence and other traits are primarily the result of heredity or environment |
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| the ability to produce original, appropriate, and valuable ideas and/or solutions to problems |
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Term
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Definition
| searching for information that may be helpful to solve the problem |
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Definition
| letting the problem "sit" while the relevant information is digested |
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Definition
| being suddenly struck by the right solution (light bulb goes on) |
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Definition
| transforming the insight into useful action |
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