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| the science that studies behavior and they physiological and mental processes that underlie it, and it is the profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of science to practical problems. |
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| the branch of psychology concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders |
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| any overt (observable) response or activity by an organism. |
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| the premise that knowledge should be acquired through observation |
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| a research method in which the investigator manipulates one (independent) variable under carefully controled conditions and observes whether any changes occur in a second (dependent) variable as a result. |
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| a condition or event that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable. |
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| the variable that is thought to be affected by the manipulations of the independent variable. |
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the subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable. |
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| consists of similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment given to the experimental group |
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| exists when two variables are related to each other |
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| a numerical index of the degree of relationship that exists between two variables. |
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| a researcher engages in careful observation of behavior without intervening directly with subjects |
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| an in-depth investigation of an individual participant |
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| structured questionnaires designed to solicit information about specific aspects of participants' behavior. |
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| individuals' personal assessments of their overall happiness or life satisfaction |
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| occurs when the mental scale that people use to judge the pleasantness-unpleasantness of their experiences shifts so that their neutral poitn, or baseline for comparison, is changed |
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| continued rehearsal of material after you have first appeared to master it |
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| occurs when people forget information because of competition from other learned material |
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| strategies for enhancing memory |
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| a study system designed to promote effective reading that includes five steps: survey, question, read, recite, and review. |
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| refers to an individual's unique constellation of consistent behavioral traits |
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| durable disposition to behave in a particlar way in a variety of situations. |
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| the primitive, instinctive component of personality that operates according to the pleasure principle. |
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| the decision-making component of personality that operates according to the reality principle |
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| the moral component of personality that incorporates social standards about what represents right and wrong |
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| consists of whatever one is aware of at a particular point in time |
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| contains material just beneath the surface of awareness that can be easily retrieved |
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| contains thoughts, memories, and desired that are well below the surface of conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on one's behavior |
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| largely unconscious reactions that protect a person from painful emotions such as anxiety and guilt |
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| involves creating false but plausible excuses to j ustify unacceptable behavior. |
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| involves keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buring in the unconscious |
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| attributing one's own thoughts, feelings, or motives to another |
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| involves diverting emotional feelings (usually anger) from their original source to a substitute target. |
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| behaving in a way that is exactly the opposite of one's true feelings |
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| a reversion to immature patterns of behavior |
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| bolstering self-esteem by forming an imaginary or real alliance with some person or group |
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| developmental periods with a characteristic sexual focus that leave their mark on adult personality |
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| failure to move forward from one stage to another as expected |
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| children manifest erotically tinged desires for their other gender parent, accompanied by feelings of hostility toward their same-gender parent. |
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| a storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from people's ancestral past that is shared with the entire human race |
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| emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning |
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| involves efforts to overcome imagined or real inferiorities by developing one's abilities. |
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| a theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study observable behavior |
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| a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by anotehr stimulus. |
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| unconditioned stimulus (UCS) |
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| a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning. |
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| Unconditioned Response (UCR) |
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| an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning. |
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| Conditioned Stimulus (CS) |
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| a previously neutral stimulus that has acquired the capacity to evoke a conditoned response through conditioning |
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| a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning |
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| the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency |
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| a form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences |
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| occurs when a response is strengthened (increases in frequency) because it is followed by the arrival of a (presumably) pleasant stimulus |
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| Occurs when a response is strengthened (increases in frequency) because it is followed by the removal of a (presumably) unpleasant stimulus |
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| a response is weakened (decreases in frequency) because it is followed by the arrival of a (presumably) unpleasant stimulus |
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| occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models. |
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| one's belief about one's ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes |
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| theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their free will and their potential for personal growth |
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| a collection of beliefs about one's own nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior |
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the disparity between one's self-concept and ones actual experience |
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| a systematic arrangement of needs, according to priority, in which basic needs must be met before less basic needs are aroused |
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| the need to fulfill one's potential |
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| an estimate of the proportion of trait variability in a population that is determined by variations in genetic inheritance |
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| examines behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive value for members of a species over the course of many generations |
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standarized measure of a sample of a person's behavior |
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| refers to the uniform procedures used to administer and score a test |
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| provide information about where a score on a psychological test ranks in relation to other scores on that test |
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| measurement consistency of a test |
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| the ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure |
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| personality scales that ask individuals to answer a series of questions about their characteristic behavior |
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| ask people to respond to vague, ambiguous stimuli in ways that may reveal the respondents' needs, feelings, and personality traits |
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| any circumstances that threaten or are perceived to threaten one's well-being and thereby tax one's coping abilities |
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| an initial evaluation of whether an event is (1) irrelevant to you, (2) relevant, but not threatening, or (3) stressful |
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| an evaluation of your coping resources and options for dealing with the stress |
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| consists of chronic environmental conditiones that, although not urgent, are negatively valued and that place adaptive demands on people |
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threatening events that have a relatively short duration and a clear endpoint |
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| threatening event that have a relatively long duration and no readily apparent time limit. |
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| any situation in which the pursuit of some goal is thwarted |
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| when two or more incompatible motivations or behavioral impulses compete for expression |
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| any noticeable alterations in one's living circumstances that require readjustment |
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| expectations or demands that one behave in a certain way |
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| powerful, largely uncontrollable feelings, accompanied by physiological changes |
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| general adaptation syndrome |
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| a model of the body's stress response, consisting of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion |
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| active efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by stress |
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| physical and emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and a lowered sense of self-efficacy that is attributable to work-related stress |
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| Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) |
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| involves enduring psychological disturbance attributed to the experience of a major traumatic event |
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genuine physical ailments thought to be cause din part by stress and other psychological factors |
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| various types of aid and succor provided by members of one's social network |
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| a syndrome marked by commitment, challenge, and control that is purportedly associated with strong stress resistance. |
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| passive behavior produced by exposure to unavoidable aversive events |
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| any behavior intended to hurt someone, either physically or verbally |
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| the release of emotional tension |
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| spending an inordinate amount of time on the internet and inability to control online use |
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| a largely unconscious reaction that protect a person from unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and guilt. |
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| efforts to deal with stressful events that are judged to be relatively healthful |
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| rational-emotive behavior therapy |
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| approach to therapy that focuses on altering clients' patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive emotions and behavior |
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| unrealistic appraisals of stress that exaggerate the magnitude of one's problems |
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| generating as many ideas as possible while withholding criticism and evaluation |
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| the tendency to delay tackling tasks until the last minute |
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| consists of the ability to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion. |
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| a family of mental exercises in which a conscious attempt is made to focus attention in a nonanalytical way |
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| a systematic approach to changing behavior through the application of the principles of conditioning |
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| events that typically precede the target response |
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| system for doling out symbolic reinforcers that are exchanged later for a variety of genuine reinforcers |
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| accomplished by reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired response |
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| a written agreement outlining a promise to adhere to the contingencies of a behavior modification program |
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| today we enjoy more technological advances, more leisure time and choices than ever before. However we are not happier, in fact, our perceived quality of life seems to be worse. |
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| Explanation for Paradox of progress |
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traditional sources of emotional security, such as family, community and religion have been lost. we are overwhelmed by rapid cultural change. mental demands of modern life have become too complex. excessive materialism has weakened social ties, makes us insecure and has undermined our sense of well-being. |
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| Advantages of the scientific approach |
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beyond speculation to actual causes clear precise relatively free of error scrutinized by other scientists |
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what makes people happy? What is NOT very important |
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money age gender parenthood intelligence physical attractiveness |
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what makes people happy? what is SOMEWHAT important |
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health social activity religion |
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what makes people happy? what is VERY important |
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love and marriage work personality |
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conclusions regarding roots of happiness: |
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subjective feelings of happiness are more important than objective measures. happiness is relative- we evaluate our happiness relative to what others around us have, and we evaluate our happiness relative to our own expectations |
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| Jung's analytical psychology |
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collective unconscious archetypes introverts and extroverts |
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psychodynamic perspectives Freud's psychoanalytic theory |
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structure of personality defense mechanisms psychosexual stages |
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psychodynamic perspectives adlers individual psychology |
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| compensation- complexes (inferiority and superiority), importance of childhood-but focus on parent/child interaction, birth order |
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Behavioral Perspective Pavlovs classical conditioning |
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conditoned reflex classical conditioning in everyday life |
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behavioral perspective skinner's operant conditioning |
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positive reinforcement negative reinforcement extinction punishment |
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behavioral perspective bandura and social learning |
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observational learning self-efficacy |
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humanistic perspective roger's person-centered theory |
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the self and its development- self concept and incongruence anxiety and defense importance of: empathy, unconditioned positive regard, and genuineness |
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humanistic perspectives Maslow's theory of self-actualization |
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hierarchy of needs the healthy personality |
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Eysenck's theory research on behavioral genetics- heritability ratio evolutionary approach to personality |
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an everyday event lies in the eye of the beholder environmental origins self-imposed cultural influences |
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frustration conflict: approach-approach avoidance-avoidance approach-avoidance Change pressure: conform and perform |
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Responding to stress emotional responses |
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negative-irritability, anger, anxiety, fear, sadness Positive-anxiety, motivation effects-prolonged stress may turn into longer depression |
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responding to stress physiological responses |
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fight or flight increased HR; sweating, headaches; tired |
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| Potential effects of stress |
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impaired task performances disruption of cognitive functioning burnout post traumatic stress disorders psychological problems and disorders physical illness positive effects |
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| Positive effects of stress |
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it satisfies need for stimulation and challenge it can promote personal growth or self-improvement it can inoculate us against future stress |
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| factors influencing stress |
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social support hardiness optimism and conscientiousness |
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negative ways of coping giving up |
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learned helplessness pessimistic explanatory style behavioral disengagement |
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negative ways of coping striking out at others |
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aggression using a substitute target in this manner-displacement catharsis research finds that acting aggressively produces more, not less anger and aggression |
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negative ways of coping indluging yourself |
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excessive eating, drinking, and smoking gambling and drug internet addicted |
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negative ways of coping blaming yourself |
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albert ellis called this "catastrohic thinking" which involves" -attributing failures to personal shortcomings -focusing on negative feedback -being overly pessimistic about the future |
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negative ways of coping defense mechanisms |
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may shield us from emotional discomfort caused by stress however, most involve a degree of self-deception, a distortion of reality |
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confroting porblems directly realistic appraisals of stress and coping resources learning to recognize and manage disruptive emotional reactions to stress learning to exert some control over potentially harmful or destructive habitual behaviors |
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ellis' A-B-C model he explains how our appraisal is critical to the coping process negative appraisals-are often associated with catastrophic thinking postive-allow constructive coping catastrophic thinking can be reduced by: detect it, dispute it, laugh at it, reinterpret it |
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four techniques 1. using systematic problem solving 2. seeking help 3. effective time-management 4. improving self-control |
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enhancing emotional intelligence releasing pent up emotions managing hostility and forgiving others meditating using relaxation procedures |
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