Term
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Definition
"The Bell Curve"
-takes score on some measure
-normal distribution is everywhere- whenever we look at any variable in nautre which seems to be influenced by multiple independent variables, that variable usually is normal distribution |
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Term
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Definition
-measure of central tendency
-middle point on bell curve
-average |
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Term
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Definition
-sum of squared deviations from the mean
-you take an individuals score, subtract the mean score, then square that number, and you get variance
-the higher the number the larger the variance |
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Term
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Definition
-square root of variation
-how much spread there is of scores around the mean |
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Term
| Explaining for (accounting for) variance |
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Definition
-different attributions that will affect the mean
-when you take out variance (like how much people study for a test, etc) everyone has the same score and normal distribution is just a line at the M
-this is impossible because there is always error- random that cannot be controlled |
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Term
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Definition
observable expressions of the underlying genotypes
-physical characteristics that are determined by genotypes |
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Term
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Definition
-a specific version or variation of the gene
-different alleles have different DNA sequences
-alleles determine genotype and phenotype
-make a smal, additive contribution to phenotypic variation |
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Term
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Definition
-segment of DNA that is involved in producing
-made up of alleles
-alleles are determined by heredity |
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Term
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Definition
location on a gene
-a stretch of dna at a particular chromosomal location which encodes a protein (or regulates another gene) |
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Term
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Definition
-single locus characteristic
-determined by a single gene ex: huntington's disease |
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Term
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Definition
-complex (quantitative) genetic
-more than on e version (allele, DNA sequence) of the DNA exists
-alleles add up with respect to their influence on the trait, and the sum is different in different individuals
-Ex: spare change gene
-differences in these genetic sums in a population of individuals can be represented as a normal curve of genetic influence |
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Term
| Sources of variation in behavioral phenotypes |
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Definition
-genetic variation: how much of the phenotypic variation is the result of non-genetic influences
-heritability- the proportion of phenotypic variation in a sample that can be attributed to genetic influences |
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Term
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Definition
-proportion of phenotypic variation in a sample that can be attributed to genetic influences
-the remaining variation (1-h2) is attributable to the environment (i.e. environmentality)
-heritability apply only to groups
- |
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Term
| if you examined the height of only ppl who were severely malnourished during development- h2 or environment count for more? |
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Definition
-h2 would account for more variation because everyone was in the same environment
-opp ex: basketball kids |
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Term
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Definition
-develop from same egg
-clones of one another
-share 100% of their polymorphisms |
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Term
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Definition
-developed from two eggs fertilized by different sperm
-share 50% of their polymorphisms on average |
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Term
| Similarities and differences between MZ and DZ twins |
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Definition
Similarities:
-intra-uterine environment
-age
-shared environments
-non-shared environments
Differences:
-GENES |
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Term
| equal environments assumption |
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Definition
| -it's assumed that they have the shared environmental influences |
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Term
| the logic of twin studies |
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Definition
| MZ and DZ twins permit us to disentangle the effects of genes and environments because they are similar environmentally but different genetically. |
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Term
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Definition
| exaggerated, persistent, irrational fear of some object or situation which often leads to maladaptive escape or avoidance behavior |
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Term
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Definition
-public speaking (and other social situations)
-snakes, spiders, other small animals or insects
-storms, heights, large bodies of water
-small enclosed space, vast expanses. bridges, tunnels, flying
-blood, injury and injections
-idiosyncratic stimuli and situation (things that aren't really in any other category, ex: three-legged stools, eye patches) |
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Term
| two-factor theory of phobia |
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Definition
Factor 1. Classical conditioning- a neutral object becomes a CS for fear through contingent association with an US for fear (UR)
-subsequent presentation of the CS elicits the CR of fear
-Factor 2- operant conditioning- presentation of the CS induces fear, which is an aversive drive state
-aversive drive state stimulates esacep behavior which reduces teh unpleasant state- so escape is negatively reinforced for the reduction of fear.
-if CS is predictable, escape develops into avoidance
-avoidance precludes exposure to the CS, thereby preventing exinction of the fear, the CR is thus "protected" by the conditioned avoidance behavior |
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Term
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Definition
-drive to get away
-stimulates escape behavior which reduces the unpleasant state |
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Term
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Definition
-negative reinforced by lessening fear
-stimulated by aversive drive state |
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Term
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Definition
-if escape behavior is predictable (you know the CS) then escape behavior develops into avoidant behavior
-CS is thus protected by the condition of avoidance behavior (it won't become extinct) |
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Term
| Criticisms of Two-Factor Theory |
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Definition
-evidence of traumatic conditioning is rarely found in the histories of phobic individuals
-many traumatic associations produce no conditioning- phobias are not guaranteed by shocking events
-laboratory fear conditioning in humans results in CRs that are weak, rapidly extinguished, and subject to conscious control (importance of uncontrollable/inescapable events; expectation of a benign outcome) |
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Term
| vicarious conditioning/informational acquisition |
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Definition
learning a phobia
-strengthening of an operant response due to observing whether a behavior is punished |
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Term
| latent inhibition (immunization) |
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Definition
| -if you bungee jump a lot and then have a bungee jumping accident, you won't have a fear of heights because you can disassociate the UR (the accident) with the CS |
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Term
| preparedness theory (by M.E.P. Seligman) |
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Definition
-we commonly fear things which posed real danger to our hominid ancestors
-early hominids with innate aversions to such stimuli gained a reprodutive advantage
-we became "prepared" (predisposed) to associate fear with certain stimule (snakes, spiders) more readily than other stimuli |
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Term
| Ohman's differential electrodermal conditioning paradigm |
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Definition
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Term
| E.L. Thorndike "Law of Effect" |
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Definition
-put cats in box, when they push a pedal they got out- cats put back in box found their way out faster
Law of Effect: responses followed by pleasurable outcomes will be strengthened. The more pleasurable the outcome, the greater the strengthening
-responses are affected by their outcomes
-to understand a response, look at the environmental events that elicit and follow the response |
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Term
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Definition
-invented operant conditiong
-behavior is the product of the consequences it produces
-looking inside an organism is a mistake- you can never understand, all you have to do is watch |
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Term
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Definition
S1 (stimuli/Antecedent)--> Black Box--> R (response)-->S2(consequence)
-the science of psychology consists of fully describing these relationships without referring to intervening variables that supposedly reside inside the "box"
-feelings don't matter at all, all you have to do to understand behavior is to understand this sequence of events NOT what goes on in black box |
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Term
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Definition
Analyzing a particular behavior solely in terms of the stimuli which precede it (antecedents) and follow it (consequences)
Skinner Box: controlled environment that lets you see and control stimuli, response, and consequence |
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Term
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Definition
(Skinnerian, Instrumental)
-the modification of an animal's behavior over time by the contingent consequences of their behavior (I do something, I act on the environment somehow, that produces stimuli, which makes it more or less likely to act on that environment again) |
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Term
| Operant vs. Classical Conditioning |
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Definition
CC involves stimulus-stimulus learning while operant involves stimulus-response learning.
CC responses are generally involuntary and reflexive, OC responses are generally voluntary |
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Term
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Definition
| classify consequences according to their effects |
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Term
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Definition
| Stimulus added that increases/ strengthens behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| Stimulus added that decreases/weakens behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| Stimulus withdrawn that increases/strengthens behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| Stimulus withdrawn that decreases/weakens behavior |
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Term
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Definition
stuff that the object/animal can do (or is capable of)
-a response must be part of the animal's behavioral repertoire before it can be strengthened by reinforcement |
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Term
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Definition
| the level at which the response is emitted prior to conditioning |
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Term
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Definition
| reinforcing a desired behavior that is not in their natural behavioral repertoire by using successive approximation (rewarding behaviors similar to the one you want) |
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Term
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Definition
| a behavior being maintained by reinforcement will weaken if the reinforcement is discontinued |
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Term
| "equal environments" assumption |
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Definition
| when MZ and DZ twins experience equivalent shared and non-shared environmental influences |
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Term
| non-shared (unique) environment |
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Definition
-everything that affects twins differently (different friends, random events, illnesses)
-also, can be families: aspects of familial environment seem to be similar but twins experience and response with family can be different. |
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Term
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Definition
Neuroticism: psychological distress, excessive urges or cravings (depressed, stressed, anxious)
Openness: tolerance for and exploration of the unknown (creative, original, curious)
Extraversion: capacity for joy (friendly, outgoing, assertive)
Agreeableness: number of sources one takes ones norm for right behavior: (generous, empathetic, considerate)
Conscientiousness- organized, motivated, and determined in goal-directed behavior (organized, neat, reliable) |
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Term
| Significance of MZ twins reared apart |
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Definition
-research able to tell whether personality traits are more heritable or environmental
-answer is: heritable! MZ twins are just as similar reared together or reared apart
-genetic effect increases as one gets older and the shared environment (for twins) decreases
-parents do have an effect, but not a systematic one |
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Term
| Are MZ twins representative of other people with respect to personality? |
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Definition
| YES, studies have shown that they are just as varied as non twins and get the same average scores |
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Term
| Happiness (subjective well-being) SWB and personality |
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Definition
personality traits are the biggest predictor of happiness
-two key traits related to the SWB are neuroticism and extroversion- these are highly heritable .8 and .6, respectiely
-these traits are stable over long periods of time |
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Term
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Definition
| levels of happiness tend to be relatively stable across long amounts of time (your life) |
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Term
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Definition
| people tend to return to a happiness baseline, despite good or bad events. The theory is for example if someone makes a lot of money expectations and desires increase in tandem, thus not affecting overall happiness |
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Term
| Tellegen, Lyken et al study: heritability of the happiness set-point |
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Definition
this study found that happiness was almost entirely heritable
-studied a large group of DZs and MZs, some reared apart some reared together
-measured SWB by self-report scales
-measured again 9 years later
-intra-twin, cross-time happiness correlation for SWB= .55
-cross-twin, cross-time correlation for SWB= .54
=happiness set point is heritable!! |
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Term
| Lykken's "epicure of experience" concept |
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Definition
| happiness is like a boat on a lake- we all have different set amounts of water in our lake, some have higher levels than others. Those with low levels need to "make waves" to lift them up, such as relationships, books, movies, eating |
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Term
| The Three Laws of Behavior Genetics |
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Definition
1- All human behavior traits are heritable
2-Effects of familial environments are smaller than the effects of genes
3-a substantial portion of variation in complex human behavioral traits is not accounted for by either familial environments or genes- non-shared environments |
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Term
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Definition
| Accidentally invented classical conditioning |
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Term
| Classical (Pavlovian, Respondent) conditioning |
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Definition
Symbolically:
CS--> nothing
US--> UR
CS-->US--> UR
CS--> CR
-when presentation of CS alone elicits CR |
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Term
| CS, US, UR, CR definition |
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Definition
CS: stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place
US: stimulus that naturally elicits a response without any learning
UR: a response that does not have to be learned, like a reflex
CR: a response that has been learned |
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Term
| Temporal relation between CS and US |
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Definition
Forward conditioning: strongest kind, when presentation of CS precedes AND overlaps US
Trace conditioning (short delay): slightly weaker, when CS precedes and US comes shortly after
Trace conditioning (long delay): weaker than short delay: CS precedes and US doesn't come for a while (humans are much better at this: aka food poisoning)
Simultaneous conditioning: when CS and US are presented together, may result in some conditioning, but not much
Backward conditioning: when US precedes CS- does not result in conditioning |
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Term
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Definition
CS MUST be predictive for learning to occur:
When CS reliably predicts the US, then conditioning happens, otherwise it confuses the subject |
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Term
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Definition
-when CS no longer elicits CR, happens after repeated presentation of CS with no US
-this is not un-learning, it's "new learning"
-animal learns that CS no longer predicts US |
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Term
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Definition
occurs after extinction, when CS again elicits CR
-it's as if the animal tries that response out again
-this proves that extinction is new learning, not un-learning
-for animals who have been extinctioned, putting US back in reestablishes CR much more quickly than first time- SAVINGS!- UR still laying there latent |
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Term
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Definition
when a CR is elicited to stimuli that are similar to CS but not CS
Ex: albert and his white rat |
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Term
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Definition
when CR elicited only for specific CS
-animal not going to respond to a bell thats a few hzs higher or lower |
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Term
| Higher- or Second- Order Conditioning |
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Definition
CS1--> CR1
CS2--> CS1--> CR1
CS2--> CR2
-once classical conditioning has occurred, CS can function as US in a new sequence
-each time you step away from classical conditioning, response gets weaker |
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Term
| schedules of reinforcement for operant conditioning |
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Definition
continuous: every response reinforced
partial: some responses are reinforced
-continuous reinforcement results in faster learning, but partial reinforcement results in greater resistance to extinction |
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Term
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Definition
| signals that a particular behavior will be reinforced (or not) ex: an out of order sign on a vendig machine |
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Term
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Definition
| when your behaviors are regulated by an Sd you are under stimulus control |
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Term
| The "3-Term contingency" of Operant Conditioning |
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Definition
Sd--> R--> Sr/p
if the consequence changes the response/behavior positively it is a reinforcer, negatively it is a punisher |
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Term
| Skin Conductance Response |
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Definition
-what Ohman used
-measures sweat glands in the skin
-greater activity of sweat glands results in greater conductivity, the sympathetic branch of the automatic nervous system which activates sweat glands |
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Term
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Definition
| When you flash one image (target) then another (mask) so it looks like you only saw the second one |
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Term
| Non-Conscious Conditioning and Preparedness |
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Definition
| when they flash you pictures so fast that you don't know youre seeing them. They shock you when you see a spider or a flower, but you become conditioned to be more scared of the spider than the flower because you are predisposed to be. Non-conscious is better because it relies on reflexes/instincts |
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Term
| Cook and Mineka's Research on fear acquisition in monkeys |
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Definition
| OM's (observer monkeys reared in lab) were shown a video of a wild monkey being super scared of a snake. When presented with a snake, the OMs were terrified (vicarious conditioning) and sort of afraid of toy snakes (generalization). After watching a video of real monkeys being super scared of flowers, monkeys are not that scared of flowers. |
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Term
| Hans Eysenck's Attack on Psychotherapy |
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Definition
| He said that psychotherapy produced no better results that spontaneous remission. His techniques and methods were flawed and biased, but it sparked a ton of research about psychotherapy outcomes. |
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Term
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Definition
| when someone gets better without any psychotherapy |
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Term
| psychotherapy outcome research general procedures |
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Definition
groups
1) One or more treatment groups
2) placebo control group
3) wait-list/ no therapy group (controls for spontaneous remission)
Improvement being evaluated:
1) self-report, rating scales- can be biased
2) therapist input- also can be biased
3) observational methods- when someone has a problem that affects a particular behavior (ex: public speaking) you can observe difference after treatment
4) physiological measures- anxiety can be measured because they have abnormal sympathetic arousal |
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Term
| wait-list and placebo control groups |
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Definition
Wait-list- controls for spontaneous remission
placebo- people think they are getting treatment but they're not- this sometimes causes a problem, when people get better because of placebo therapy its not because they never had a problem, its because we don't know whats helping them! |
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Term
| Gordon Paul's Insight vs. Desensitization Study |
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Definition
-took university students who has public speaking phobias and divided them into:
1) Systematic desensitization: presentation of CS in a relaxed environment makes the person associate relaxation with CS through talking with a therapist
2) Insight (psychodynamic) therapy- 5 sessions
3) Placebo group: Students were brought in and told by a "scientist" that they were going to have to do a very stressful task of hitting a button whenever the "distress sound" came from a tape they were listening to, the scientist gave them a "tranquilizer" from "NASA" so they could do this better- patients found the task boring as opposed to stressful (because it was) and associated it with the pill
4) Wait-list/ no treatment group
Pre and post treatment measures included self-report, therapist report, observational and physiological measures
Summary: desensitization was superior to everything, insight and placebo were about equivalent, and both were higher than no treatment.
Conclusions: insight and placebo are effective because of non-specific therapeutic factors. Regardless of treatment, something happens (someone talks to you, takes an interest) which helps you get better |
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Term
| Contributions of Gene V Glass- |
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Definition
| - was trying to prove Eysenck wrong |
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Term
| Meta-analysis: definition, why it was developed, what it entails: |
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Definition
Definition: a technique for aggregating and analyzing the quantitative results of multiple studies
Why it was developed: Glass wanted to prove Eysenck wrong- wanted to summarize the massive amount of psychotherapy outcome research.
What it entails: In a given study, treated and untreated individuals produce different distributions of scores on the measure of improvement. The difference between the mean of the treated group and untreated group is the treatment effect. By expressing the treatment effect as the standardized differences (d-scores) all studies are placed on the same metric so you can compare studies without worrying what they were studying. |
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Term
| Treatment effect size (d-scores) in meta-analysis: computational procedure and meaning |
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Definition
Computational procedure:
(Mtreated-Mcontrol)/SDcontrol
-measure of improvement is how much the mean of the treated group differs from the mean of the untreated group expressed in control group standard deviations- allows all studies to be placed on the same metric
-(d-scores) are treatment effects expressed on the same metric |
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Term
| Smith & Glass (1977 and 1980) meta-analysis findings |
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Definition
| Compared the d-scores (effect sizes) associated with different treatments in their meta-analysis and found small differences. They found the average treatment size effect was .68 in 77 and .85 in 80. This proves that psychotherapy works most of the time |
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Term
| Common vs. specific factors in psychotherapy |
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Definition
specific factors: behavioral vs. cognitive, drugs vs. no drugs, extreme types of therapy )deep-brain stimulation)
common factors: factors that are present in all types of psychotherapy |
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Term
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Definition
Everyone is a winner so everyone gets a prize!
- the idea that differences in effectiveness among various psychotherapies are nonexistent or trivially small. It also means that common factors help patients get beneficial results |
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Term
| Wampold et al.s 1977 meta-analysis purpose, approach, findings |
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Definition
Purpose: to prove the Dodo bird effect
Approach: Treatment effect calculates as (Mrx1-Mrx2)/SDpooled. Compared different outcome studies head-to-head randomly- this worked because the treatment effect sizes were all on the same metric (like reaching into a crate of apples and randomly pulling out 2)
Findings: effect sizes between directly-compared psychotherapies is between .00-.21 % (negligent)
-Dodo bird effect true!! |
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