use introspection to understand functions of mind not its elements

act psychology 

Brentano

focused on mental operations and functions

interactions between mental processes and physical events 

creation of apparently high-intelligence feats by animals

consciously or unconsciously furnishing them with subtle behaviour cues 

titchener

a sensation is given meaning by the images it elicits

meaning is determined by law of contiguity 

arrangement and rearrangement of mental elements

can result from apperception 

Wundt and Titchener

basic sensations from which more complex thoughts are derived 

basic elements of emotions

accompany each sensation

Wundt thought emotions made of combinations of elemental feelings

related to Tridimensional theory of feeling 

wanted pure phenomology seeking the essence of pure experience

mental essences 

Kulpe

pure mental thoughts of judging and doubting without those acts hvaing particular referents or images 

Brentano

mental acts always intend something

mental acts always embrace either some object in the physical world or some mental image (idea) 

reflection on one's subjective experience

whether such reflection is directed toward the direction of the presence or absence of a sensation (Wundt or Titchener)

or toward the detection of complex thought processes (Brentano, Stumpf, Kulpe, Husserl) 

applied systematic experimental introspection to the study of problem solving

found that some mental operations are imageless

imageless thoughts 

Wurzburg school (imageless thoughts, problems have motivaters til solved) 

Husserl

universal, unchanging mental processes that characterize the mind and in terms of which we do commerce with the physical environment 

problem-solving strategy

can be induced by instructions or by experience

used without a person's awareness 

mental experience

occurs when sensations are given meaning by the memory of past experiences 

Wundt

experiences of one type often intensify opposite types of experiences

eating sour vs. sweet makes sweet sweeter 

Wundt

goal-directed activity often causes experiences that modify the original motivational pattern 

Wundt

tendency for prolonged experience of one type to create a desire for the opposite type of experience 

Husserl

purpose to create a taxonomy of the mind

before a science of psychology is possible, we need to understand the essences of mental processes in terms of understanding and responding to the world 

basic mental experience

triggered by an environmental stimulus 

school of psychology

founded by Titchener

to describe structure of mind 

interested in acoustical perception

insisted all psychology study intact, meaningful mental experiences

instead of searching for meaningless mental elements 

created Structuralism

opposite of voluntarism 

in the tradition of empiricism-associationism 

Wundt

feelings vary along three dimensions:

pleasantness/unpleasantness

excitement/calm

strain/relaxation 

because sensations are all that we can be certain of

all conclusions reached about physical reality must be false 

but sensations are still essential for societal living 

Wundt

10 volume book

invesitages higher mental processes through historical analysis and naturalistic observation 

Wundt

school of psychology

belief that through process of apperception, individuals could direct their attention towards whatever they wished 

Wundt

aspect of humans allowing them to direct their attention anywhere they wish

from voluntarism 

founder of experimental psychology

voluntarism 

group of psychologists under influence of Kulpe

at University of Wurzberg

group found some thoughts occur without a specific referent (they are imageless)

higher mental processes could be studied experimentally

problems have motivational properties that persist until the problem is solved 

found that following Galton's methods of measuring intelligence falsely concluded deaf and blind children had low intelligence

attempted to measure cognitive abilities that constituted intelligence directly 

scale made by Binet and Simon

to directly measure various cognitive abilities they believed intelligence comprised

appeared 1905

revised 1908 and 1911 

studies of identical twins reared together and apart proved intelligence innate

invented his data, major scandal ensued 

worked with Galton

developed strong interest in measuring individual differences

brought Galton's methods of intelligence testing to US 

represented functionalism at Columbia University 

mathematical expression indicating the magnitude of correlation between two variables

Pearson 

made theory of evolution

emphasized struggle for survival resulting in natural selection of the fittest

showed continuity between human and nonhuman animals

importance of individual differences

importance of adaptive behaviour

strongly influenced subsequent psychology 

modern extension of Darwin's theory to explanation of human and nonhuma social behaviour

aka sociobiology 

complex statistical technique

analyzing correlations among measurements and attempting to explain the observed correlations by postulating various influences 

Darwin

organism's ability to survive and reproduce 

influenced by cousin Darwin

interested in measurement of individual differences

convinced mental ability is inherited

recommened eugenics

    first to:

attempt systematic measurement of intelligence

use questionnaire to gather data

use word-association test

study mental imagery

define and use correlation and median

systematically study twins 

Spearman 

aspect of intelligence largely inherited

coordinates specific intellectual abilities 

translated Binet's intelligence test to English

used it to test and identify kids with mental retardation

extreme nativist

recommended those with mental deficiencies be sterilized or institutionalized

as a result

amount of immigrants allowed in US reduced 

rejected popular belief that women achieve less than men because they're intellectually inferior

emphasized differences in social opportunity

focused on improving education of subnormal and gifted students 

involves survival and perpetuation of copies of one's genes into subsequent generations

one can be fit by helping own kin survive and reproduce as well as by just producing offspring 

Lamarck

adaptive abilities developed during a lifetime passed onto the organism's offspring 

Stern

suggested procedure for quantifying intelligence

divide mental age by chronological age 

proposed adaptive characterisics developed during lifetime are inherited by offspring (inheritance of acquired characteristics)

mechanism by which species were transformed

economist

wrote essay on principle of population

gave Darwin principle he needed to explain his observations made upon Beagle

because more individuals born than environment can support, struggle for survival ensues and only fittest survive 

Stern

composite score reflecting all levels of Binet-Simon test that a child could successfully pass 

Binet

exercises suggested for enhancing determination, attention, and discipline

to prepare a child for formal education 

from Darwin's theory of evolution

more members of a species born than environment can support, nature selects those with characteristics most conducive to survival under the circumstances

this allows fittest to reproduce 

tendency for extremes to become less extreme in one's offspring

tall parents...not so tall kids 

Spencer

if given freedom to compete in society, ablest individuals will succeed

weaker will fail

this is how it should be 

used early form of factor analysis

found that intelligence was made of specific factors (s)

and general factors (g)

believed general factors (g) of intelligence were largely inherited 

followed Larmarck, then Darwin

applied Darwinian principles to society

thought society should be laissez-faire 

ablest could then prevail

social Darwinist 

observations made by bain and spencer

behaviour resulting in pleasureable consequences tends to be repeated

behaviour resulting in painful experiences tends to be avoided 

made term "mental age"

suggested intelligence quotient as way to quantify intelligence 

in a struggle for limited resources

those with traits conducive to survival will live and reproduce 

revised Binet's intelligence test

made it more compatible with US culture

along with Goddard and Yerkes made Army Alpha and Army Beta tests

conducted a longitudinal study of gifted children

found gifted children did not fade but became gifted healthy adults 

suggested psychology could help in war effort (WWI)

by making tests to best place recruits according to ability and keep mentally unfit out

testing program largely ineffective

discontinued after war 

Carr

unit of behaviour with:

need, environmental setting, and a response to satisfy that need 

promoted functionalism

president of APA and chairman of Chicago University for 25 years

useful in solving practical problems

Munsterberg and functionalists liked it

structuralists opposed it 

never got Phd because she's a woman

contributed to verbal learning

memory

self-psychology

first woman president of APA 

conducted research demonstrating negative effect of segregation of children

some evidence cited in 1954 Supreme court decision ending legal basis of segregated education in US

first black president of APA 

Thorndike

theory of learning

concern with neural bonds or connections that associate sense impressions  and impulses into action 

key person in development of functionalism

mark beginning of school of functionalism with his 1896 publication of "the reflex arc concept in psychology" 

Woodworth

stresses internal variables that motivate organisms to act 

James

self that consists of everything a person can call his or her own

material self-possessions

social self-self as known by others

spiritual self-all a person is conscious of 

Munsterberg first forensic psychologist 

application of psychological principles to legal matters 

influenced by Darwin

stressed role of consciousness and behaviour in adapting to environment 

James

learned patterns of behaviour vital for functioning of society

functionalism 

created first US experimental lab

founded APA and was first president

invited Freud to Clark University to give lectures

helped psychoanalysis recieve international recognition

recapitulation theory stimulated interest in developmental psychology

among first to advocate for sex ed for children 

Thorndike

the extent to which learning transfers from one situation to another is determined by the similarity between the two situations 

James

ideas cause behaviour

thus we can control our behaviour by controlling our ideas 

Munsterberg first industrial psychologist 

application of psych principles to:

personnel selection

increasing employee productivity

equipment design

marketing, advertising, packaging of products 

helped found functionalism (after Dewey)

emphasized function of consciousness and behaviour

only valid criterion for evaluating thought, theory or act is whether is works

pragmatist

psychology should employ scientific and non-scientific procedures

individually, sometimes believe in free will, sometimes determinism 

radical empiricist 

self as knower

stream of consciousness 

people first respond, then have an emotional experience

run, then be scared

we should act according to the way we want to feel 

James-Lange theory of emotion

functionalist

with James, proposed theory that emotional experiences follow behaviour 

Thorndike

reward strengthens associations

punishment weakens them

later revised: rewards strengthen but punishment has no effect 

Thorndike

strength of an association varied with the frequency of the association's use

discarded in 1929 

Thorndike

more often an association is made, stronger it becomes

discarded in 1929 

early comparative psychologist

gradation of consciousness among animal species

to infer cognitive processes of animals, he observed their natural behaviour 

insistence that explanations of animal behaviour be kept as simple as possible

one should never attribute higher mental activities to an animal if lower mental activities are adequate to explain its behaviour 

stressed application of psych principles to clinical, forensic, and industrial areas

created applied psychology

first forensic psychologist

first industrial psychologist 

reciprocal antagonism 

Calkins 

widely-used method of investigating verbal learning

pairs of stimulus material first presented to subjects

after several exposures one pair is presented and the subject is asked to recall the second 

Thorndike

experimental chamber used for systematically studying animal behaviour 

Hall

all stages of human evolution are reflected in the life of an individual 

Munsterberg

method of treating mentally disturbed people

strengthen thoughts antagonistic to those causing a problem 

James

contention that all consistent categories of human experience are worthy of study

whether or not amenable to practices of science

followed Darwin

studied animal behaviour

research bad-anecdotal evidence and subjective 

James

how a person feels about him or herself based on the ratio of successes to attempts

increase self-esteem by accomplishing more or attempting less 

James

how the mind works

it has an ever-changing stream of interrelated, purposive thoughts

rather than static elements that could be isolated from each other

opposite to what structuralists thought (they thought you could isolate thoughts from each other) 

under Hall

first black American Phd in Psych

led Howard University to become big training center for black psychologists 

marks transition between schools of functionalism and behaviourism

concluded from animal research that learning occurs gradually

occurs independent of consciousness

the same for all mammals

final theory of learning: practice alone has no effect on association (neural bond)

and that positive consequences strengthen an association but negative consequences do not weaken it 

first woman to attain doctorate in Psych

second female president of APA

contributed to comparative psychology by studying animal behaviour under controlled conditions before inferring the mental attributes necessary to explain the observed behaviour 

functionalist

at Columbia University

emphasized the role of motivation in behaviour 

Bechtrev

term for what Pavlov called conditioned reflex 

Like Pavlov

looked upon all human behaviour as reflexive

studied skeletal reflexes instead of glandular ones Pavlov did 

reflexology 

school of psychology

founded by Watson

insisted behaviour be psychology's subject matter

goal to be prediction and control of behaviour 

Pavlov

pattern of points of excitation and inhibition that characterize the cortex at any given moment 

inhibition of an inhibitory process

demonstrated when

after extinction

a loud noise causes the conditioned response to reappear 

Pavlov

brain activity that leads to overt behaviour of some type 

objects or events that become signals (CS) for occurence of bio significant events

tone=food 

McDougall

emphasis on goal-directed behaviour 

Sechenov 

reduction or cessation of activity caused by stimulation

extinction causes CS to inhibit a conditioned response

discovery of inhibitive mechanisms in the brain led him to believe all human behaviour could be explained in terms of brain physiology 

Watson

usually correct response that terminates a learning trial

this response will be repeated when organism is in situation again 

behaviourism

different than Watson's behaviourism

emphasized purposive and instinctive behaviour

(hormic psychology) 

sentiment 

overt behaviour should be psych's subject matter

willing to speculate about internal causes of behaviour

like mental and phsiological states 

shared Sechenov's goal of creating a totally objective psychology

focused on the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli that control behaviour

physiological processes that they initiate

all human behaviour is reflexive 

only directly-observable events, like stimuli and responses, should be the psych's subject matter

avoid explanation of behaviour in terms of unobserved mental events

it can and should be avoided 

Bechterev

approach to studying humans

study of relationship between environmental events and overt behaviour

one of the earliest behaviourist, maybe earliest 

father of Russian objective psychology

all human behaviour in terms of stimuli and physiological mechanisms 

without recourse to metaphysical speculation of any type 

symbols of objects/events signalling occurence of bio significant events

escaping in response to word "fire" 

McDougall

condition occuring when 2 or more instinctual tendencies are elicited by the same object, event, or thought 

Loeb

automatic orienting response in plants and animals

inspired Dewey

animals respond to stimuli in certain ways because of their biologic makeup 

an unlearned reflex

unconditioned response (UR)

founder of behaviourism

psych's goal: prediction and control of behaviour

no existence of mental events

instincts play no role in human behaviour

mind body problem: monist

thought is nothing but implicit muscle movement 

Tolman

verification of a hypothesis, expectancy, or belief

Skinner 

positivistic

DESCRIBES relationships between enviromental events and behaviour

rather than attempting to explain relationships 

Hull

mechanism of reinforcement

anything that reduces a drive is reinforcing 

Tolman

hypothesis tentatively confirmed 

Skinner

approach to research

study the systematic relationship between behavioural and environmental events

focus on relationship between reinforcement contingincies and response rate or probability 

accepted law of contiguity

not law of frequency

learning occurs at full strength after just one association between a pattern of stimuli and response

strength between two depends on number of reinforced pairings between two 

Hull

strength of an association between a stimulus and response

strength depends on number of reinforced pairings between the two 

formulated a complex hypothetico-deducto theory to explain all learning phenomena

drive-reduction

habit strength (sHr)

reaction potential (sEr) 

Tolman

expectancy that occurs along during the early stages of learning 

Hull

set of postulates from which empirical relationships are deduced/predicted

if empirical relationships are as predicted, theory gains strength

if not, theory loses strength and must be revised or abandoned 

Thorndike

organism learns to make a response that is intrumental in producing reinforcement 

intervening variables cannot be observed directly, they are thought to be causally related to behaviour

Hull's habit strength

Tolman's cognitive map

animals who passively experience a goal box with no more reward extinguish a previously learned response to the box  faster than those without this experience

Tolman

learning occurring but not translated into behaviour 

Guthrie

one law of learning

once a pattern of stimuli is experienced along with a response, the two become associated

1959 revised: noticed signal for done 

Guthrie

internal or external stimuli keeping an organism active until goal is reached 

small segment of behaviour such as:

a reflex or habit 

that is isolated for study 

agreed with older behaviourism

overt behaviour should be psychology's subject matter

disagreed with old behaviourism that theoretical speculation concerning abstract entities must be avoided

such speculation is accepted if the theoretical terms employed are operationally defined

and lead to testable predictions about overt behaviour 

logical positivism

terms referring to empirical events 

Guthrie

association between a pattern of stimuli and response develops at full strength after just one pairing of the two 

belief from logical positivism

all sciences should share common assumptions, principles, and methodologies

should model themselves after physics 

science should study only those objects or events that can be experienced directly

all speculation about abstract entities should be avoided 

purposive behaviour

behaviour directed toward some goal

terminates when goal is attained

molar behaviour 

Tolman

type of behaviorism he pursued

emphasizes molar rather than molecular behaviour 

Hull

probability of a learned response being elicited in a given situation

this probability is a function of the amount of drive and habit strength present 

Hull-drive reaction

Skinner-anything increasing rate or probability of a response

Tolman-confirmation of a hypothesis, expectation, or belief

Guthrie-mechanical arrangement that prevents unlearning 

behaviourist

psych should study functional relationship between environtmental events

like reinforcement contingincies and behaviour

positivist 

logical positivism

those terms are employed to explain empirical observations 

created kind of behaviourism that used mental constructs and  emphasized purposive behaviour

employed many intervening variables

most important was cognitive map

belief

expectancy 

confirmation

latent learning

hypothesis