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| 698 children born on island, example of both nature and nurture |
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Nurture, study where used sound to make child scared of white rats.
Fear can be learned |
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| Child plays a role in their development |
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| Sources of individual differences |
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| Genes, treatment by other people, subjective reactions to other people's treatment, choice of environment |
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| Controlled rearing studies |
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| Deprivation studies, take a child and manipulate its environment to test developmental hypotheses (controlled upbringing) |
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-All knowledge that children acquire comes from experience
-Child rearing should adjust to the needs of child |
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-Born with innate knowledge
-Strict discipline and self control across the board |
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-Tabula rasa "Blank slate"
-Experience is what matters
-Emphasized NURTURE
-Importance of early strict parenting-progressive freedom |
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-Innately good-noble savage
-Emphasized NATURE
-Child learns via spontaneous interactions with objects and should play/learn from the environment |
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1. choose question to be answered
2. Formulate a hypothesis/prediction about the answer
3. Develop a method for testing the hypothesis
4. Interpret the obtained data and draw a conclusion |
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| Independent measure of a given behavior are consistent |
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| Types of reliability tests |
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| Experiment measures what it is intended |
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Internal: Effect observed due to the variables the researcher intentionally manipulated (confounds decrease this)
External: Results can generalize beyond the particulars of the researcher |
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| 3 Methodological contexts for gathering data |
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| Interviews, naturalistic observations, structured observations |
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| All participants are asked to answer the same questions |
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Questions are adjusted in accord with the answers the interviewee provides
Pro: more flexibility to dig down deeper |
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Describe how children behave in their usual environment
Con: Target behavior might not be observed, cant change variables etc. |
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Present identical situation to all children and record each child's behavior
Pro: Enables direct comparisons of different children's behavior
Con: Context of situation, less natural situation that might not translate into different environments/situations |
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| Discover association between 2 variables |
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| Changes other variable in same direction |
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| Changes other variable in opposite direction |
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Summarizes strength/direction of the relationship between 2 variables
(range: 1 to -1) |
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| Behavior that is hypothesized to be affected by the independent variable not the control |
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| Pros of experimental designs |
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○ Allow exploration of cause-and-effect relationships
○ Allow researchers to examine highly specific effects of stimuli and events on participants
○ Researchers can design focused assessments of specific variables |
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| Cons of experimental designs |
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○ Create possibilities of ecologically invalid measures-whether a study faithfully captures a pattern of behavior that would occur in the normal circumstances of childhood
○ If ecologically invalid, its results may not be relevant for the real world |
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○ Children of different ages are compared on a given behavior or characteristic over a short time period
○ Limitations: Sampling at random different subjects so you don’t have control over what is the same/different, patterns of change |
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○ Same children are studied twice or more over a substantial period of time
○ Limitations: Takes a long time, expensive, the participants may not continue for the whole study, selective attrition, rehearsal effects |
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○ Conception - 2 weeks
○ Egg travels down the fallopian tube
○ Day 4→ divided enough times that it creates a blastocyst
■ Outer mass of cells forms the placenta
■ Forms placenta → has amniotic fluid and the stem cells form the embryo
■ Identical twins → occurs when there is a split in the inner cell mass |
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○ 3rd- 8th week
○ ~22 days: Neural tube is a U-shaped groove formed from the top layer of differentiated cells in the embryo
■ Goes on to form the spinal cord
■ Neural tube defects can include spina bifida (failure of neural tube to close)
● Cephalocaudal Development (Embryo at 4 Weeks):
○ From this period on, areas near the head develop earlier than those farther away
● 5 ½ - 8 weeks → Face Develops: When cleft lip/ palate can develop
● Embryonic Support System:
○ Placenta: Permits the exchange of materials between the bloodstream of the fetus and that of the mother
○ Umbilical cord: Tube that contains the blood vessels that travel from the placenta to the developing organism and back again
■ Oxygen, blood, nutrients |
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○ 9th week- birth
○ Placental membrane: Barrier against some, but not all toxins and infectious agents
○ Amniotic Sac: A protective membrane filled with fluid in which the fetus
○ Fetus at 18 weeks
■ Start to see some reflexive behaviors (i.e sucking thumb).
■ Purpose→ Train muscles to coordinate themselves so once the fetus is born it can utilize them
■ Individuals play a role in their own development |
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| Biological tissue of baby mixing with the mother |
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| 4 stages of cell development |
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1. Cell division
2. Cell migration
3. Cell differentiation
4. Selective cell death |
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| Barrier against some, but not all toxins and infectious agents |
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| Cephalocaudal development |
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● From this period on, areas near the head develop earlier than those farther away
● Occurs when the embryo is at 4 weeks |
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| Environmental agents that have the potential to cause harm during prenatal development |
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| Factors associated with teratogens |
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○ “Dose-response” relation
○ Individual/species differences
○ “Sleeper” effects
○ Mitigated by sensitive periods |
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○ Creation of all the neurons
○ Proliferation of neurons via cell division |
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| ○ Moving all the neurons to the correct place in the brain |
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○ Increase in size and complexity of dendrites as they branch out
○ Mainly after birth |
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○ Growth of myelin sheath
○ Fatty layer (myelin) accumulates around nerve cells
○ Begins before birth and continues into adolescence |
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| ○ Process by which neurons form synapses with other neurons, resulting in trillions of connections |
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| Eliminates surplus connections |
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Experiences that your brain is expected to have
○ Brain wiring occurs due to normal experiences common across all people and present over the course of evolution |
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- Experiences that your brain is not expecting to have, but you spend a lot of time doing it so it changes your brain
○ Neural connections are created and reorganized throughout life as a function of individual experience (differs between people) |
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The capacity of the brain to be affected by experience
"Use it or lose it" |
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IN experience-expectant plasticity, timing matters!
○ Neural organization that does/doesn’t occur is typically irreversible |
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| ○ If expected does not occur un-stimulated neurons may be “pruned” and deficits may result such as deafness & blindness |
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The packaging for our genetic material (DNA)
○ Chromosome spools and DNA is wrapped around it |
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Normal cell reproduction
○ Left with 2 chromosomes in each cell |
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Sex cell reproduction
○ Further division, end up with 1 chromosome in each cell |
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| Causes of genetic variability |
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| Mutations and Random assortment |
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| ○ Changes in sections of DNA caused by random or environmental factors |
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○ Shuffling of 23 pairs of chromosomes in the sperm and egg
○ Chance determines which member of the pair forms into the new sperm and egg |
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| Crossing over of genetic material, chromosomes with cross and exchange genetic material and segregate into separate germ cells |
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| Dominant recessive pattern |
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○ The dominant allele is the form of the gene that is expressed if present
○ The recessive allele is not expressed if a dominant allele is present |
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| ○ Everyone with the abnormal gene has the disease |
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| ○ Inheriting one copy of the gene does not lead to disease b/c the normal allele predominates |
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| ○ Transmitted on either the egg or the sperm |
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○ A single gene with >1 dominant allele (mult.influence)
■ e.g. single gene can affect multiple traits
○ Both alleles can be expressed or blended
○ Different expression depending on whether they came from mom or dad |
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| The environment can change your genes (i.e. how they are expressed) |
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| Shapes the physical structure of the genome |
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| Permits the exchange of materials between the bloodstream of the fetus and that of the mother |
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| Tube that contains the blood vessels that travel from the placenta to the developing organism and back again |
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| Failure of neural tube to close |
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| Low level processing of basic info from the external world by sensory receptors (e.g. eyes, skin, ears, etc.) |
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| Process of organizing/interpreting sensory info about the objects, events and spatial layout |
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○ Find smallest width at which infants of a given age show a preference for stripe over gray
○ Babies→ no preference when stripe are too narrow |
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○ Continued habituation: Show babies different color cloths to show that babies look less and less every time they are presented the stimuli
○ Dishabituation (become really interested): Then show them a completely different color→ if they see in color they will look longer at this new color |
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● Scanning
○ 1 month scans the perimeters of shapes
■ Focus on the outside of objects→ where there is a bigger contrast in color difference
○ 2 month olds scan both the perimeters and the interiors of shapes |
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■ 2 eyes and each eye gets a slightly different picture
■ The feed from both views are fused together to create a 3d picture |
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■ Muscles in each eye are sensitive so it helps eyes converge when objects are closer
■ Relax muscles→ further away |
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| (lazy eye)→ if it goes uncorrected they lose the ability for both of their eyes to not see in 3d |
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| ■ As things get closer, the take up more room on your retina |
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| ■ When two lines converge |
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○ The sharpness of visual discrimination develops rapidly, approaching that of adults by age 8 months
○ Reaches full adult acuity by 3-6 years |
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○ Limitations in the early months (0-3 months)
■ Poorer in 1st month, highly saturated red at birth
■ 3 months + is adult like |
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● Put goats and other animals on the visual cliff to see if it would be afraid to walk over the edge
● If used touch, would run over the edge
● If using depth, they will go to the edge of the cliff
● Results: All goats crossed the shallow side, no goats crossed the deep side
● Conclusion: An innate capacity to perceive/avoid visual drop-offs |
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○ Well developed at birth (mid-range, localization reflex)
○ Adult like by ~6 mos (frequency range, intensity, adv. localization etc.) |
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| A view of development that emphasizes the idea that a general, all purpose learning system, with few or no biases toward acquiring particular kinds of information, is present at birth |
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| The study of the traits from an adaptive evolutionary perspective that usually involves comparisons across species |
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| General changes that apply across all situations or domains |
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| Specific changes that that occur in restricted areas or domains |
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| A view of development that emphasizes the idea that a set of different learning systems is present at birth, in which each system is biased to acquire particular kinds of information better than others |
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| Takes place when a new kind of structure or process emerges that was not present before |
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| The same structures and process remain but show differences in their magnitude |
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| The chemical signals can cause the receiving neuron to “fire”, creating an electrical signal called the ??→ travels down the axon to the ends of the axon terminals |
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| The variations of a particular gene that can exist at a particular location on a chromosome |
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| A tube that the impulses travel through → covered by myelin sheath |
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| A/T and C/G → attach the two strands of the DNA molecule together in a twisting structure (double helix) |
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| Has identical structures on both sides of the center line ( right and left kidneys, arms, legs, eyes, ears, and so on) |
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| Regulating heart rate, breathing, swallowing, blood pressure, digestions and other automatic non voluntary processes in the body and is evolutionarily very old |
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| Involved in coordination of voluntary movement and integration of some sensory information with action |
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| Divided into left and right hemispheres → involved with high level thought |
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| Involved in both voluntary and involuntary movement, and processed information about smell & the cerebral cortex |
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| Central pathway that allows the left and right hemispheres to communicate |
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| Time frames in which certain kinds of experiences are essential for normal development |
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| When two different sperm fertilize two different eggs → fraternal twins |
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| The outermost layer of the cells → eventually forms the skin and the nervous system |
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| The innermost blastocyst layer → develops into the glands like the thyroid, and specialized tissues lining organs like the lungs |
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| Involved in planning, problem solving, and regulating thoughts and emotion |
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| Have only one of each type of chromosome, or half the genetic material contained in the body’s other cells |
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| The genetic information encoded as particular alleles |
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| The entire set of chromosomes in an individual organism |
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| Methyl groups (specific carbon- hydrogen configurations) become attached to certain DNA base pairs, usually with the result of turning of activity level of a gene or affecting other genes that follow that gene in a regulatory sequence |
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| Have 3 chromosomes rather than 2 in the 21st chromosome pair |
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| Babies that come from the same zygote→ reason for nearly identical genotype |
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| The middle layer, becomes internal tissues → skeleton, internal organs and muscles |
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| The ways that the genetic information is expressed or manifested in an organism, including its anatomical structures, its biochemical processes, and its behaviors. |
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| Hazardous internal or external environmental factors that can potentially cause problems with development during prenatal period |
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