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Psych 350 Exam 1
Holt Lunstad Exam
68
Psychology
Undergraduate 4
05/14/2012

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Term
Hindsight Bias
Definition
'I knew it all along phenomenon; tendency to exaggerate, after learning an outcome, one's ability to have foreseen how something turned out. Be careful! We can make up a story to justify almost any belief.
Term
What is social psychology?
Definition
Scientific study of the reciprocal interactions between the real or perceived social world and our thoughts, behaviors, and emotions
Term
How is social psychology different from sociology or personality psychology?
Definition
Compared with sociology, social psychology focuses more on individuals and uses more experimentation. Compared with personality psychology, social psychology focuses less on individuals’ differences and more on how individuals , in general view and affect one another.
Term
The importance of levels of explanation
Definition
different ways things can be explained, and how they can be complementary and not necessarily contradictory. For example, there are social, individual, interpersonal, intrapersonal explanations--none of these are ‘wrong’ or ‘right’--just different levels of explanation for same topic using different views. Helps expand understanding.
Term
How do human values impact social psychology?
Definition
-Human values impact what is accepted or not, and therefore impact social psychology as social psych studies human behavior. 'Zeitgeist'.
Term
What is the naturalistic fallacy?
Definition
what is natural is good, that what is ought to be (i.e. women are naturally nurturing so they ought to stay home with the kids)
Term
Experimental Research
Definition
Studies that seek cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or more factors and controlling others (pros--can explore cause and effect, cons--some important variables cannot be manipulated)
Term
Correlational Research
Definition
Study of naturally occurring relationships among variables (pros--often uses real world settings, can examine many variables, cons--difficult to determine causation
Term
Independent vs. Dependent Variables
Definition
Independent Variable: the experimental factor that a researcher manipulates.
Dependent Variable: the variable being measured, so called because it may depend on manipulations of the independent variable.
Term
Random Assignment
Definition
Random assignment is lessening effects of biases by spreading out the subjects over the different conditions randomly. Gives confidence that significant differences are due to treatment, not systematic error
Term
Mundane Realism
Definition
the extent to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday experiences
Term
Experimental Realism
Definition
Degree to which an experiment absorbs and involves its participants
Term
Demand Characteristics
Definition
Cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected. Often times can change results as participants will change their behavior to conform to the experimenter’s expectations (expectancy effects)
Term
What ethical issues are involved in social psychology research?
Definition
-informed Consent
-Avoiding Harm
-Deception
-Confidentiality
Term
Self-Schemas
Definition
a cognitive collection of beliefs and feelings about self that organize & guide processing of self-relevant information (Ex. perceiving ourselves as athletic, overweight smart, etc.) Based on past knowledge, present experiences, and future hopes. *These affect how we perceive, remember & evaluate other people and ourselves
Term
Self-Reference Effect
Definition
tendency to process efficiently and remember well information about ourselves (ex. If you apply what you’re learning in class to your everyday life, you’ll remember the concepts better)
Term
Self-Esteem
Definition
a person’s overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth (sum of all our self-schemas and possible selves)
Term
How reliable is self-knowledge?
Definition
Curiously Flawed-we do not know why we behave the way we do. (ex. underestimate time to complete a task. We have the greatest difficulty predicting the intensity and duration of future emotions, ect.)
Term
What cultural differences are there in self-representations (interdependent vs. independent self)?
Definition
Independent Self- (mostly Western or Individualistic countries)-concept of giving priority to one's’ own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identification.
Interdependent Self- (mostly Asia, Africa, and Latin or Collective countries)- concept of construitting one’s identity in relation to others.
Term
Self-efficacy
Definition
A sense that one is competent and effective. If you like yourself overall, that's self-esteem. If you believe you can do something, that's self-efficacy.
Term
Locus of control
Definition
The extent to which people perceive outcomes as internally controllable by their own efforts or as externally controlled by chance or outside forces.
Term
Learned helplessness
Definition
The sense of hopelessness and resignation learned when a human or animal perceives no control over repeated bad events. Uncontrollable bad events leads to perceived lack of control which leads to learned helplessness.
Term
Self-serving bias
Definition
The tendency to perceive oneself favorably. We readily excuse our failures, accept credit for our successes, and in many ways see ourselves as better than average.
Term
Unrealistic optimism
Definition
We perceive ourselves to be more successful in future events and less likely to experience negative events.
Term
False consensus
Definition
Overestimating or underestimating the extent to which others think and act as we do. On matters of opinion, we find support for our positions by overestimating the extent to which others agree.
Term
-False uniqueness
Definition
On matters of ability or when we behave well or successfully we see our talents and moral behaviors as relatively unusual.
Term
Why do self serving biases exist? What are adaptive and maladaptive qualities of this defense?
Definition
There are multiple motives for why self serving bias exists. We are motivated to assess our competence, to verify our self-conceptions, and especially motivated to enhance our self-image. Everyone wants to feel good about themselves.
Adaptive by feeling good about oneself and to enter the stressful circumstances of daily life with the resources conferred by a positive sense of self. Helps protect people from depression. Acts as a buffer for anxiety and stress. Belief in our superiority can also motivate us to achieve, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy and can sustain our hope through difficult times.
Maladaptive by possible effect of causing us to blame others or feel cheated out of something we “deserved.” It can be poisonous to a group if everyone feels they are better than the other person.
Term
Factors that Influence Self Identity
Definition
Environmental factors (saliency--spotlight effect, social comparison, events)
Term
Significance of Social Roles
Definition
The roles we play influences how we view ourselves (complexity may be better)
Term
Explanations for Self-Serving Attributions
Definition
Self esteem, presentation to others, information available
Term
Self Handicapping
Definition
Protecting one's self-image with behaviors that create a handy excuse for later failure (1.create obstacles that reduce likelihood of success, 2. Devise ready made excuses in case you fail)
Term
False Modesty
Definition
Pretending to be modest or humble when you really are not
Term
Self Monitoring
Definition
A form of impression management, high-self monitors are individuals whose behavior is determined more by the situation and low self-monitors are individuals whose behavior is determined more by by the situation, and low self monitors are individuals with behavior determined more by internal factors such as their own attitudes or beliefs
Term
Basking in Reflected Glory
Definition
A situation in which individuals publicly display their affiliation with successful others even when they have not played an instrumental role in the success of that other person or group. Identification with successful others and disassociation from failing others serves to enhance self-esteem.
Term
The Fundamental Attribution Error
Definition
-tendency to explain other’s actions in terms of their traits. or Observer underestimates situational (external) influences and overestimates dispositional (internal).
Term
What is the actor-observer bias (see also chapt. 2)
Definition
We attribute our behavior to the situation because that is what we see. when observing others we attribute their behavior to their traits.
Term
Priming
Definition
cueing thoughts and attitudes without direct influence. The awakening or activating of certain associations. This can influence a persons thoughts or actions.
Term
Overconfidence phenomenon
Definition
We tend to overestimate how correct we are or how confident we are about a decision or a prediction.
Term
Confirmation bias
Definition
We are eager to verify our beliefs but less inclined to seek evidence that might disprove them.
Term
Heuristics
Definition
Simple, efficient thinking strategies used to form impressions, make judgments and invent explanations.
Term
Representativeness Heuristic
Definition
snap judgments of whether someone or something fits a category. If they represent a typical case. Ex. Deciding that Carlos is a librarian rather than a trucker because he better represents one’s image of librarians
Term
Availability Heuristic
Definition
quick judgments of likelihood of events (how available in memory) Ex. estimating teen violence after school shootings
Term
Illusory correlation
Definition
When we expect to find significant relationships, we easily associate random events; seeing a relationship that is not there
Term
Illusions of control
Definition
he idea that chance events are subject to our influence. (gamblers and their 'lucky' throws
Term
Regression toward the mean
Definition
The statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward one’s average.
Term
What are the three components of attitudes(tripartite view?)
Definition
Affect (emotions), behavior, cognitive
Term
Research findings on relationship between attitudes and behavior
Definition
Attitude has less effect on behavior than once thought (moral hypocrisy).
Term
Attitude
Definition
A favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone (often rooted in one's beliefs, and exhibited in one's feelings and intended behavior)
Term
When can attitudes predict behavior
Definition
when social influences on what we say are minimal (i.e., implicit attitudes), when influences on behaviors are minimal, when attitudes are specific to the behavior being examined, and when attitudes are potent
Term
When can behavior affect our attitudes?
Definition
Role playing (assume role, attitudes follow), saying becomes believing, foot in the door phenomenon, evil/moral actions, and interracial/intersocial policies
Term
Attitude formation depends are several learning processes
Definition
Classical conditioning (neutral stimuli paired with unconditioned stimuli & reflexive response, so NS becomes CS and UR becomes CR. Operant Conditioning (reinforcement/punishment), modeling, and (most importantly/strongest) direct experience (higher confidence and more resistant to change
Term
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
Definition
A model of how attitudes are formed and changed. Central to this model is the elaboration continuum, which ranges from low elaboration (low thought) to high elaboration (high thought)
Term
What is the Central Route of persuasion?
Definition
when people are focused on an argument, willing to consider it's facets and counterarguments, they are using the central route. More likely to incur persistent attitude changes that are predictive of behavioral change
Term
What is the Peripheral Route of persuasion?
Definition
surface characteristics are presented almost in background, lacking attention; focus on cues that trigger automatic acceptance, easily understood more effective in such situation
Term
Cognitive Dissonance:
Definition
Cognitive Dissonance: tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions (e.g., may occur when we realize that we have, with little justification, acted contrary to our attitudes or made a decision favoring one alternative despite reasons for favoring another)
Because this is an unpleasant experience, we often adjust our thinking
Term
Self-Perception
Definition
simpler theory, the theory that when we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them much as would someone observing us, by looking at our behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs (e.g., if I'm smiling, I must be happy)
Term
Insufficient Justification
Definition
reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one’s behavior when external justification is ‘insufficient’
Term
Overjustification Effect
Definition
the result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than internally appealing
Term
What are the 3 elements of persuasion that social psychologists study?
Definition
the communicator (credibility/attractiveness), the message (reason/emotion, discrepancy, one sided-vs-twosided, primary vs recency), and how the message is communicated (channel--active vs passive, personal vs media) and the audience (analytical/emotional, age)
Term
Impediments to attitude change
Definition
prior public commitment (mild attack), inoculation, and self change.
Term
When are 1-sided vs 2-sided arguments more persuasive?
Definition
when people are aware of opposing arguments, it is more persuasive to acknowledge said arguments. But onesided is better for those who already agree
Term
sex vs gender
Definition
sex: biological status of being female or male; gender: The social, cultural, and psychological aspects that pertain to the traits, norms, stereotypes, and roles considered typical and desirable for those who society has designated as female or male
Term
Are gender differences biological or social?
Definition
Both--interaction of both determines gender behaviors. Interactive. Biology and socialization lead to a sexual division of labor.
These roles lead to gender differences.
Term
What are some reliable differences?
Definition
Increased aggression and social dominance for men, more focus on connectedness for women, more independence for men, different sexual behaviors (men more physical/temporal, women more emotional) [note: most of these differences are small, with 90% overlap]
Term
Evolutionary Psych Theory of Gender
Definition
Focuses more on genetics and hormonal effects. Gender differences must be adaptive (or were adaptive at one time), and thus were selected for through evolutionary processes. (criticisms--non-falisifiable and conjecture; hindsight bias).
Term
Cultural Theory of Gender
Definition
nurture side; gender differences emerge based on social learning
Term
different cultural impacts on men/women development
Definition
males are considered more active, more forceful, angry, and women are considered less active, less forceful, and fearful
Term
socializing messages of gender
Definition
children's toys, television, clothing, and activities
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