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| a communication system specific to Homo sapiens; it is open and symbolic, has rules of grammar, and allows its users to express abstract and distant ideas |
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| the rules for arranging words and symbols to form sentences or parts of sentences in a particular language |
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| the entire set of rules and sounds to speak and write a particular language |
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| very rudimentary language, also known as prelanguage, used by earlier species of Homo |
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| sounds made as a result of the infant's experimantation with a complex range of phonemes, which include consonants as well as vowels; starts around 5-6 months |
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| single words, such as "mama", "more", "no!", occurs around 12 months of age |
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| the first sounds humans make other than crying, consisting almost exclusively of vowels; occurs during first 6 months of life |
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| phrases children put together, starting around 18 months, such as "my ball" or "go away" |
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| stage when children begin speaking in fully grammatical sentences; usually age 2.5-3 |
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| changes in adult speech patterns- apparently universal- when speaking to young children or infants; characterized by higher pitch, changes in voice volume, use of simpler sentences, emphasis on the here and now, and use of emotiom to communicate messages |
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| nativist view of language |
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| the idea that we discover language rather than learn it, that language development is inborn |
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| language acquisition device (LAD) |
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| an innate, biologically based capacity to aquire language, proposed by Norm Chomsky as part of his nativist view of language |
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| linguistic determinism hypothesis |
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| the proposition that our language determines our way of thinking and our preceptions of the world; the view taken by Sapir and Whorf |
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| mental processes involved in acquiring, processing, and storing knowledge |
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| the science of how people think, learn, remember, and precieve |
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| a structure in our mind- such as an idea or image- that stands for something else, such as an external object or thing sensed in the past or future, not the present |
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| visual representations created by the brain after the original stimulus is no longer present |
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| process of imagining an object turning in three-dimensional space |
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| a mental grouping of objects, events, or people |
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| arrangement of related concepts in a particular way, with some being general and others specific |
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| a concept that organizes other concepts around what they all share in common |
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| the best-fitting examples of a category |
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| the process of drawing inferences or conclusions from principals & evidence |
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| reasoning from general statements of what is known to specific conclusions |
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| reasoning to general conclusions from specific evidence |
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| judgements about causation of one thing by another |
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| the tendency to selectively attend to information that supports one's general beliefs while ignoring information or evidence that contradicts one's beliefs |
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| process by which one analyzes, evaluates, and forms ideas |
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| process using the cognitive skills required to generate, test, and revise theroies |
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| process that includes the ability first to think and then to reflect on one's own thinking |
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| mental shortcuts; methods for making complex and uncertain decisions and judgements |
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| representativeness heuristic |
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| a strategy we use to estimate the probability of one event based on how typical it is of another event |
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| a device we use to make decisions based on the ease with which estimates come to mind or how avaliable they are to our awareness |
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| expressions unique to a particular language; usually their meaning cannot be determined by decoding the individual meanings of the words |
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| the urge to move towards ones goals; to accomplish tasks |
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| the precieved states of tension that occur when our bodies are deficient in some need, creating an urge to relieve the tension |
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| inherently biological states of deficiency (cellular or bodily) that compel drives |
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| any external object or event that motivates behavior |
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| the process by which all organisms work to maintain physiological equilibrium or balance around an optimal set point |
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| the ideal fixed setting of a particular physiological system, such as internal body temperature |
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| the principal that moderate levels of arousal lead to optimal preformance |
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| the inherent drive to realize one's full potential |
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| a simple sugar that provides energy for cells throughtout the body, including the brain |
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| actions that produce arousal and increase the likelihood of orgasm |
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| the disposition to be attracted to either the opposite sex (heterosexual), or both sexes (bisexual) |
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| a desire to do things well and overcome obstacles |
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| brief, acute changes in conscious experience and physiology that occur in response to a personally meaningful situation |
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| affective states that operate in the background of consciousness and tend to last longer than most emotions |
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| stable predispositions toward certain types of emotional responses such as anger |
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| set of emotions that are common to all humans; includes anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise |
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| Types of emotion that require a sense of self and the ability to reflect on actions; they occur as a function of meeting expectaions (or not) and abiding (or not) by society's rules |
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| a situation that may lead to an emotional response |
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| Fredrickson's model for positive emotions, which posits that they widen our cognitive perspective and help us aquire useful life skills |
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| the evaluation of a sitiuation with the respect to how relevant it is to one's own welfare; it drives the process by which emotions are elicited |
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| the cognitive and behavioral efforts people make to modify their emotions |
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| an emotion regulation strategy in which one reevaluates an antecedent event so that a different emotion results |
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| a response-focused strategy for regulating emotion that involves the deliberate attempt to inhibit the outward manifestation of an emotion |
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| the physiological behavioral/expressive, and subjective changes that occur when emotions are generated |
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| Facial Action Coding System (FACS) |
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| a widely used method for measuring all observable muscular movements that are possible in the human face |
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| a smile that expresses true enjoyment, involving both the muscles that pull up the lip corners diagonally and those that contract the band of muscles encircling the eye |
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| James-Lange theory of emotion |
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| the idea that is the perception of the physiological changes that accompany emotions that produces the subjective emotional experience |
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| subjective experience of emotion |
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| the changes in the quality of our conscious experience that occur during emotional responses |
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| the idea that behavior varies across cultures and can be understood only within the context of the culture in which they occur |
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| term referring to something that is common to all human beings and can be seen in cultures all over the world |
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| neurocultural theory of emotion |
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| Ekman's explanation that some aspects of emotion, such as facial expressions and physiological changes associated with emotion, are universal and others, such as emotional regulation, are culturally derived |
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| learned norms or rules, often taught very early, about when it is appropriate to express certain emotions and to whom one should show them |
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| the overall evaluation we make of our lives and an aspect of subjective well-being |
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| state that consists of life satisfaction, domain satisfactions, and positive and negative affect |
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| study of how living among others influences thought, feelings, and behavior |
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| phenomenom in which the presence of others improves one's preformance |
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| phenomenon in which the presence of others causes one to relax one's standards and slack off |
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| rules about acceptable behavior imposed by the cultural context in which one lives |
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| tendency of people to adjust their behavior to what others are doing or to adhere to the norms of their culture |
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| informational social influence |
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| conformity to the behavior of others because one views them as a source of knowledge about what one is supposed to do |
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| normative social influence |
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| conformity to the behavior of others in order to be accepted by them |
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| situation in which the thinking of the group takes over, so much so that group members forgo logic or critical analysis in the service of reaching a decision |
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| a type of conformity in which a person yields to the will of another person |
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| inferences made about the causes of other people's behavior |
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| the tendency to make situational attributions for our failures but dispositional attributions for our successes |
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| fundamental attribution error |
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| the tendency to explain others' behavior in dispositional rather than situational terms |
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| schemas of how people are likely to behave based simply on groups to which they belong |
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| the tendency to see all members of an out-group as the same |
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| tendency to show positive feelings toward people who belong to the same group as we do, and negative feelings toward those in other groups |
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| a biased attitude toward a group of people or an individual member of a group based on unfair generalizations about what members of that group are like |
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| preferential treatment of certain people, usually driven by prejudcial attitudes |
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| an individual's favorable or unfavorable beliefs, feelings, or actions toward an object, idea, or person |
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| the feeling of discomfort caused by information that is different from a person's conception of himself or herself as a reasonable and sensible person |
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| the act of attempting to change the opinions, beliefs, or choices of others by explanation or argument |
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| violent behavior that is intended to cause psychological or physical harm, or both, to another being |
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| action that is beneficial to others |
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| phenomenon in which the greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them is to help |
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| selfless attitudes and behavior toward others |
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| the evolutionary favoring of genes that prompts individuals to help their relatives or kin |
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| the act of helping others in the hope that they will help us in the future |
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| the idea that we help others when we understand that the benefits to ourselves are likely to outweigh the costs |
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| the ability to share the feelings of others and understand their situatations |
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| empathy-alturism hypothesis |
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| the idea that people help others selflessly only when they feel empathy for them |
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| the idea that men and women face different problems when they seek out mates, and so the often approach relationships in very different ways |
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| triangular theory of love |
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| Sternberg's idea that three components (intimacy, passion, and commitment), in various combinations, can explain all the forms of human love |
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| an extremist group led by a charismatic, totalitarian leader who uses coercive methods to prevent members from leaving the group |
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