There are different ways of achieving compliance.

What is the Foot-in-the-door technique?

How does the foot in the door technique work?

(Power of commitment)

Once a choice has been  made, people feel pressure both from themselves and others to act consistently with that commitment.

We often make new reasons to justify that decision, once we have commited.

- Get it in writing

- Public commitments

- Make individual feel commitment was freely chosen.

If someone does something nice for you, you feel like you should do something nice back.

People will still feel the need to do this if:

1) the person was a stranger

2) even if it ends up being costly

People are much better at making judgements when comparing it to something else.

This is the case with the door in the face technique, as when you compare a small request to a large one, it seems more reasonable.

We are more likely to obey if:

1) High status/authority figure

2) No clear cut point for disobeying

3) Belief that the authority figure will take responsibility for our actions (If we do something wrong, someone else told us to do it, and therefore they are to blame.

4) Barriers to empathy for victim.

A good example of this is the 'shock' experiment.

What are the goals of scientific method?

(3)

1) Observe and describe

2) Understand and predict

3) Apply and control

Fits the known facts

Makes new testable predictions

Is falsifiable

1) Formulate a testable hypothesis

2) Design a study

3) Conduct the study and collects data

4) Analyze and evaluate the data

5) Report findings

No

e.g. what is a third variable that explains the correlation between the number of ice creams eaten at the beach + the number of drownings

Hypothesis

Manipulation of independent variable

Measurement of dependent variable

Eliminating sources of bias/alternative explanations for results

Conclusion

(Source of Bias)

Describe the placebo effect

Participants condition improves because they THINK the procedures will help them.

(Source of Bias)

Describe 'Experimenter bias'

(Controlling Bias)

What is a double blind study?

Both experimenter and participant are 'blind' to the purpose of the study.

E.g. (the experimenter thinks that he is experimenting one thing, when really he is only the subject of a fake experiment)

What are the statistics within the 'standard normal curve'.

Between -3 and 3?

Between -2 and 2?

Between -1 and 1?

1) 99.73%

2) 95.45%

3) 99.73%

(Types of Tests)
What are...

1) Aptitude tests

2) Achievement tests

3) Intelligence tests

4) Personality tests

1) Measures what you may be able to do in the future

2) Measures what you can do now

3) Measures general cognitive functioning

4) Measures aspects of personal character

(Aspects of Test Development)

What is standardization?

- Give the test to a large sample + find average performance

- Must know who the population is that the test is standardized on

- Tells us how well someone has performed (by comparison)

(Aspects of Test Development)

What is Reliability?
What are some techniques of reliability?

1) Measure the extent to which the test yields consistent scores for individuals

2) Alternate forms, split half test-retest

(Aspects of Test Development)

What is Validity?

What are the three types?

1) Looks at the tests accuracy in measure what it is to measure

2) Predictive validity, criterion validity, construct validity

(Aspects of Test Development)

What is Bias in test development?

Everyone has the same chance to perform well on the test

Some groups in the population are more likely to do well than others.

What is intelligence?

General Intelligence G

There is no general intelligence but it is made up of sub skills

Linguistics, musical, logical/mathematical, spetial etc.

1) Amygdala is important in regulating aggression (part of the brain)

2) Seems to be a genetic link to criminal behaviour

3) Alcohol reduces the ability of people to monitor the consequences of their actions, increasing the likelihood of aggression.

(Why are people so aggressive)

True or false:

Sometimes people learn how to behave by watching others, especially children.

True

Especially in relation to television viewing. Research shows there is a relationship between the amount of violent TV children + their aggression levels.

(Modeling and Aggression)

What is the Copy Cat effect

When people hear about or witness acts of violence they copy the act.

E.g. School shootings

(Modeling and aggression)

What is the 'Werther Effect'

1) People develop aggressive tendencies because of maladaptive thinking patterns

2) Certain people have dsyfunctional and aggressive belief structuers about the world

(For some people even nice or neutral comments can be percieved as hostile)

(Crowd behaviour and de-individuation)

Why do people act out when they are in crowds?

1) People are already aggressive and impulsive

2)People inhibit aggression to conform to civilized societal norms

3) In crowds, we have anonymity, so we have less fear or negative evaluation.

(De-individuation)

Does de-individuation have a direct relationship with aggression?

No, rather it is anonymity and de-individuation which cause people to take on whatever role it implies (can be anti-social or pro-social)

So in other words, anonymity assists people to act out in a way they usually wouldn't.

(Aggression and Rejection)

What does Altruism mean?

1) We want to avoid the personal pain of seeing someon suffer, or guilt

2) We want to share vicariously the joy that someone feels when their life improves

You're more likely to be altruistic when you've seen another person do that

The extent to which you feel compassion effects whether you will be altruistic.

More likely when people are not in a rush

More common in rural areas and small towns

Men - more towards strangers

Women - more towards friends +fam

What does Prejudice mean.

What are its 3 components?

"Unvarourable attitudes towards a social group and its members."

Cognitive- beliefs about the attitude object

Affective- strong feelings (usually negative) about the group

Behavioural - intentions to behave in negative ways towards the group and its members

Old fashioned, hostile sexism is directed mostly towards men who stray from traditional paths - the creer women, feminists, lesbians.

E.g. Women should stay in the kitchen

For traditional women there is a cluster of apparently benevolent attitudes that put women on a pedestal, but rein force their subordination.

E.g. Opening doors for women etc.

Sometimes your expectations of a person change the way you interact with them, which then changes their behaviour in line with your negative expectations.

E.g. You speak slowly and loudly to an indian, assuming they can't understand english very well. You've brought down their own expectations of themselves to be inline with the way you think of them

(Non-verbal communication)

What is an emblem?

Give some examples

Gestures that replace or stand in for spoken language

E.g. waving, thumbs up, shaking/nodding head

(Non-verbal behaviour)

What is an illustrator?

Nonverbals that help complement or clarify the meaning of the word

E.g. using hand gestures while speaking

Happiness

Surprise

Sadness

Fear

Disgust

Anger

True or false?

When some cultures have different rules about what nonverbal behaviour means, there is the potential for misunderstanding and offence?

True.

1 of 4 types of stress

Frustration: When does this happen, and why?

Occurs in any situation in which the pursuit of some goal is thwarted.

Failures: not achieving a goal

Losses: deprived of something you're used to having.

2 of 4 types of stress

Conflict: What is conflict? What are the three types of conflict?

When two or more incompatible motivations or behavioural impulses compete for expression

1) Approach-Approach: least stressful

2) Avoidance-Avoidnace: highly stressful

3) Approach-avoidance

Vacillation

3 of 4 types of stress

Change:

What is change?

What method is used to measure it?

Life changes are not noticeable alterations in one's living circumstances that require readjustment.

SRRS method

4 of 4 types of stress

Pressure: What is pressure?

What are some emotional repsonses to stress?

What is the positive emotion that occus (folkman, 1997)

What are the effects of emotional responses?

1) Annoyance, anger, rage, apprehension, anxiety, fear, dejection, sadness and grief

2) Importance adaptive function

3) May interfere with attention and memory, impair judgement and decision making

Flight or fight

Lengthy stressors leave individuals in a state of enduring physiological arousal ;)

Relatively healthful efforts that people make to deal with stressful events

- A positive approach but doesn't promise success

-involves confronting problems directly

-task orientated and action focused

-realistic appraisal of stress levels and coping resources

-learning to recognise and sometimes inhibit disruptive emotional reactions to stress

- ensuring that your body is not especially vulnerable to the damaging effects of stress

Chocking under pressure due to elevated self-consciousness interfering with attention

Harder to suppress competing thoughts

(The effects of stress on psych func.)

What is a post-traumatic stress disorder?

-Enduring psych. disturbance attributed to the experience of  a major traumatic event

- Not normall through watching media coverage - except children

- Seen in victims, survivors, witnessess etc.

- Symptoms: nightmares, flashbacks, emotional numbing, alienation, disrupted social relations, etc.

Poor academic performance

sexual difficulties

alcohol and drug abuse

chronic stress

depression

schizophrenia

anxiety

eating disorders

insomnia + sleep disturbances

Personal growth/self-improvement

new skills

re-evaluation of priorities

Acquisition of new strengths+coping abilities

Enhanced self-concept

Type A personality, Hositility and heart disease

Emotional reactions, depression and heart disease

Stress, other diseases, and immune functioning

A = strong competitive orientation

impatience and time urgency

anger and hostility

B= relaxed, patient and easy going

An association between an act or object and an evaluation

Beliefs

feelings

behavioural tendencies

e.g. attitudes towards saying the enviroment dont predict recycling behaviour

(So people may say that they have an attitude about recycling, but when it comes down to the way they act on that (their behaviour) they don't follow through.

Other things that influence behaviour

Habit

Behavioural control, intention

Norms and groups

True of false?

Less credible sources actually have more effect on attitude change than credible sources?

False

Credible sources have more of an effect tahn non-credible sources

What is the sleeper effect?

1) Discounting

2) Disassociation

1) initially giving a message from a non-credible source, less credence

2) uncoupling of message content and source over time.

Over time, it does not matter if the source was credible or not, we forget that factor, and become convinced.

What factor does attractiveness have on persuasion?

What did the study of Debono and Telesca show?

1) Attractive likeable people are more persuasive.

2)

- Showed slide of unattractive and attractive woman

- strong and a weak message

results: attractive women are more persuasive, but only for the strong message.

-Issue that is important to us

- Time to think about the issue

- Cognitive capacity to think about the issue

e.g. choosing a good university

Limited time to think about message

in a good mood

distracted

not an important issue

e.g. going to the movies with a friend

Festinger 1957

Inconsistency between cognitions results in an aversive psychological state

Seek to reduce this by: changing one of the cognitions

Reducing the importance of cognition

adding additional consonant cognitions

When you like two things that work well for each other.

e.g.

I like my dog and my dog likes frisbies.

They work well together.

Your attitude towards both of them stays the same

It makes you upset as things and unbalanced/unstable

so you change what you like so that it is balanced.

e.g. My friends should like/dislike what i do

People performed 2 simple motor tasks for 1 hour.

They were offered either $1 or $20 to tell the next person that the task was enjoyable.

Then once they had done that, they themselves had to rate how much they enjoyed the task

The results were: People who got paid $1 though it was more interesting than those who were paid $20. Although you'd think that the person who paid $20 would rate it higher, the people who only got $1 could see that there were 2 inconsistanceys. The test was boring, they were told to tell the person it was interesting, but were only given a dollar... they had to change the way that they felt about the test in order to make them consistent.

( see slideshow for picture)

(Social cognition)

What is impression formation?

People combine information about others to make overall judgements.

(biases in impression formation)

What is the recency effect?

-strong influence on impressions

-more attentionfor negative info

-more difficult to change a negative impression

-may signify danger

Cognitive structures that represent knowledge about a concept or type of stimulus

- formed on past experience

-like theories

There are different types of schemas

- event schemas/scripts

Role schemas

self schemas

what is a person schema?

Stereotype - people in categories

implicit personality theories

specific people

Early work in social cognition compared to the social judgements made by people to those we would expect from a rational model of inference - found that we maek a lot of errors and have biases

People judge an event's frequency by th ease with which they can bring it to mind.

E.g. Which is more likely, dying from smoking related illness or dying in a car accident?

(Self schemas)
What is "representative heuristic"

People judge likelihood of group membership by comparing features of particular case to the prototype

Is Jack a lawyer or an engineer?

yes.

"an invisible car came out of nowhere, struck my car and vanished"

"A pedestrian hit me and went under my car"

Tendency to see one's own behaviour as typical

-important mechanism by which people maintain their own beliefs/opinions

--Infancy--

See slideshow on infancy to look at nature of development - chronological and processes.

how do we know what infants are like?

Habituation and dishabituation

(Decreased interest followed by recovery with new event. Violation of expectation paradigm)

Preferential sucking

Preferential looking

Cross modal matching

See slideshow for definitions of these

1) What is the habituation technique?

2) What is cross-modal matching?

1) Babies look at one type of display until bored, then second type of display is presented; babies distinguish male from female

2) babies hear a sound, look at one or another visual display;babies distinuish two from three

What are infant's

vision

hearing

taste

and

smell

like?

Vision - blind at birth

prefer female attractive faces at 2 months

adult vision at 7/8 months

Hearing - before birth

at 1 week prefer mother's voice

Taste - Prefer sucrose sweetened solution over water

at 12 hours prefer salted to unsalter cereal

Smell - 12 hours - smile at smell of banana essence

2 days - react to vinegar and garlic

1 month - recognise mother's smell

Joy

Anger

Sadness

Disgust

Distress/pain

Interest

Fear

Surprise

Permanent: swallowing, breathing, coughing, blinking

Temporary: moro, babinsky, grasping, rooting

True or false

babies prefer foreign languages

True or false

Babies prefer to look at human faces

The relationship between nature and nuture.

If the baby is an 'easy baby' but the mother is depressed, what kind of baby is there?

A feedback loop means that there is an ongoing cycle between the parents' and baby's reaction

Give an example for temperament and preference for face

Easy baby --> parents rested,content--> treat baby in relaxed manner--> easy baby and so on.

Preference for faces--> attention to faces--> develop knowledge of facts--> preference for faces

and so on

A baby loves his mother because she satisfies his needs

infact need = food.

That's what forms the attachment.

**important ***

Who was konrad lorenz? what did he contribute to the study of attachment between infant and mother?

Ethologist

imprinting in ducks

young animals follow an animal exposed to during a sensative period

infant/parent bond is not based on food only

-protection and survival

**important** what was harry harlow's study

(monkey one)

He tested primary drives theory in rhesus monkeys (see slideshow for details)

Basically stated that an isolated baby monkey would be more attached to a "cloth mom" than to a "wire mom" even if the wire mum had food.

-Attachment behaviour prewired in humans

Similar behaviour to other animal species

Baby is left with a stranger and studies the reactions.

Results can be seen on slideshows + there were 4 different patterns that babies followed

Also made distinctions about 3 different types of mothers

Consequences of early attachment deprivation

issues - child care, child custody, adoption, divorce

Language development

Origins of language in infancy (Output)

Babbling, young babie produce all phonetic distinctions

pointing

COmmunicate before begin to speak

(cry, smile, burp)

Cooing at 2 months

babbling at 6-9 months

pointing

first words at 12 months

naming explosion from 18 months

("what's that?")

Linguistic sensitivity in infancy

e.g. young babies can hear all phonetic distinctions

motherese

babies prefer it

high pitch, elevated contours

turn taking

At 12 months babies watch to see what people are attending to as they speak.

Joint attention in word learning

hearing children of deaf parents do not learn language from tv

Can't reliably establish reference without a communicative partner

First words?

Give examples of

object names

simple actions

and pragmatic functions

1) ball, doggie, book

2) drink, give, get

3) bye bye, ta

What is teh indeterminacy problem

(Whole vs part)

When a baby is learning the word bunny.

e.g.

does bunny mean:

the animal as a whole?
only the rabbit's ears?
an edible mammal?

Rabbit in daylight?

infant thinks that one word refers to too many things.

e.g. may think moon also refers to

white ball

picture of a circle,

etc.

only seen in first 75 words or so

overextensions more common

18 months or after 50-75 words are learned

starting with name explosion

learn an average of 9 words per day until age of 6

Syntax

What is the two word stage?

Starting at around 18 months

new level of linguistic power

teddy eat vs eat teddy

word order errors are rare

after 3 words, complexity of language increases dramatically

children's errors are noticeable at this stage

How does a child learn language?

Central issue in nature vs nurture debate

Developmental regularity of language acquisition

poverty of the input

children say things they've never heard

Variation in language across the world

language development clearly depends on input

What is the critical period?

what is the sensitve period?

1) normal language development only if exposed to language between 2 years and puberty

e.g. - effects of early deprivation (genie, sujit)

2) a time when language development occurs most easily

Notes about second language learning:
Immigrants to new linguistic environment must move before age 7 to have no accent.

ID: concerned with ddrive (Immediate) satisfaction--- thirst, sex, hunger, provides the motive power

Superego: internalized parental control; much like a conscience, rigid structure of morality

Ego: oversees balance between superego + id; raional thought; controls and channels id; follows the reality principle

What does the freudian theory say about:
1) The libido

2) The conscious

3) The preconscious

4) The unconscious

1) sexual life energy that drives the id

2) consists of things you are currently aware of

3) things in the long term memory that influences behaviour, could be retrieved if desired

4) primary personality component, unaware of but influences behaviour, reflected in slip of the tongue, dreams.

What are frued's psychosexual stages of developmenet

1) oral 0-2

2) anal 2-3

3) phallic 3-7

4) Latency 7-11

5) Genital 11-adult

1) infant achieves gratification through oral activities such as feeding, thum sucking and babbling

2) child learns to respond to some of the demands of society, such as bowel and bladder control

3) the child learns to realize the differences between males and females and becomes aware of sexuality

4) child continues his or her development but sexual urges are relatively quiet

5) the growing adolescent shakes off old dependencies and learns to deal maturely with the opposite sex

What does frued say about people who are deprived or who have unsuccessful resolution of oral conflict?

(oral character)

What does frued say about people who are deprived or who have unsuccessful resolution of anal conflict?

(anal character)

Anal retentive - holding in, stuborn

anal expulsive - uncontrolled, messy

There are certain defense mechanisms that frued believes that we put in place to protect ourselves.

****will be on test****

What is

repression

projection

displacement

reaction formation

regression

rationalization

identification

1) hold in feelings and thoughts burry them in the unconscious

2) attributing one's own thoughts, feelings, or motives to another

e.g. you dont really like your boss,

but you believe that you do,

you transfer that feeling to your boss and believe that your boss doesn't like you

3) diverting emotional feelings from original source to another

eg angry at mum, take it out on dad

4) behave in a way opposite to what you're feeling

eg a parent subconsciously hates her child, so spoils him with gifts

5) turn to immature patterns of behaviour

temper tantrum as an adult

6) justify behaviour in head

7) boosts self esteem by forming imaginary or real alliance with a person or group

Behaviours, values, standars, skills, attitudes, motives

shaped to conform to those desirable in society

involves many people and institutions

What are the social interactions that infants experience?

What about later in life?

infancy: anticipation of others' behaviours/feelings

Later:

joint attention - gaze-following, social referencing

COmmunication - pointing, using language

Teasing, game-playin

Our uniquely human ability to predict and explain behaviour with reference to internal mental states

- mind reading

-mentalizing

desire and perception

"want, cracker"

at 2 1/2 to 3 years

children talk about

Thoughts as well

"he thinks its beautiful"

Contrastives

"i want a turtle but you dont want one"

They live a life without a theory of mind.

overt symptoms after 6 months

symptoms established by 2 or 3 years

continue through adulthood

Active, curious, and inventive throughout life.

Piaget

what are schemas?

Organized patterns of thought and action

child uses to understand and respond to experience

Piaget

Assimilation is a modified schema. Define!

Fitting new objects, events into an existing schema

taking in enviromental elemeents

change self

Piaget

Accommodation is a modified schema. Define!

Modifying a schema to fit new events, objects

changing in response to new enviroment elements

change world

Understanding the world through the sense and motor actions (grasp, look, etc)

Basic of all later schemas

Develop object permanence

Age 2-7

Understand intuitive relations

thinking is egocentric demonated by perception

egocentric speech

visual perceptive-taking

lack of conservation

Ability to understand another's perspective or viewpoint

not totally absent and suddenly present, gradual development

Can do logical operations

understand reversibility

can do conservation and classification tasks

Can do abstract and hypothetical reasoning

age 12 to adult

can reason contrary to experience

found only people's area of expertise

Work can be both productive and pleasant

there is no one best approach to managing people - its a contingency approach

Orientation toward people: distrusting

Assumptions about others: basically lazy

Interest in working: low

Conditions under which people will work: when pushed

Orientation toward people: accepting, promotes betterment

assumptions about people: need to ahcieve and be responsible

Interest in working: very

Conditions under which people will work hard: when appropriately trained and recognised.