Term
| What are the three perspectives of learning and briefly explain each one? |
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Definition
| 1) Behavioral: classical/operant conditioning 2) Cognitive: concepts, higher order thinking 3) Biological: change in neurosystems after observed behavior |
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Term
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Definition
| decrease in response after exposure to repeated stimulus |
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Term
| What are the three main assumptions about learning? |
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Definition
| 1) Experience shapes behavior 2) Learning is adaptive/environmental 3) Laws of learning are applicable to animals and humans alike and can be observed |
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Term
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Definition
| something in the environment that elicits a response |
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Term
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Definition
any behavior that is made in response to a stimulus
i.e. doctor striking knee with rubber hammer |
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Term
| unconditioned stimulus and what type of conditioning it is in |
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Definition
| CLASSICAL: UCS is something that naturally elicits a response prior to any learning |
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Term
| unconditioned response and what type of conditioning it is in |
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Definition
CLASSICAL: UCR is a behavioral response that occurs naturally to UCS prior to learning/conditioning
ex: dogs salivate (UCR) in response to food (UCS) |
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Term
| neutral stimulus (NS) and what type of conditioning it is in |
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Definition
CLASSICAL: a stimulus that does not produce the intended response, i.e. Pavlov's bell
- orienting response = recognition of stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
pairing a neutral stimulus with the UCS so that the NS becomes the CS
ex: bell creates salivation = conditioned response
- usually more effective if UCS is more intense than NS |
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Term
| interstimulus interval and the three types |
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Definition
time interval between UCS and NS
i.e. time between train noise and puff of air
- optimal time = half second
1) forward conditioning (Pavlov): CS comes before UCS; bell before food = best results
2) simultaneous interval: CS at the same time as UCS
3) backward conditioning: CS comes after UCS; food before bell = least reliable conditioning |
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Term
| simultaneous generalization + example |
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Definition
production of CR to stimuli similar to CS
ex: a variety of rustling bush noises for wild animals |
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Term
| stimulus discrimination + example |
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Definition
response made only to a certain range of stimuli
ex: humans conditioned to eat only at certain times of day |
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Term
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Definition
| behavior produced less and less when CS is repeated without UCS --> weakened CS (less salivation without food) |
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Term
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Definition
| when bell is paired with food, behavior suddently reappears "like riding a bike" |
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Term
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Definition
second neutral stimulus has no effect, stimulus closest in time to UCR has conditioning effect
i.e. light-bell-food: bell would only have conditioned response |
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Term
| second-order conditioning |
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Definition
| pairing another neural stimulus with the original NS |
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Term
| What's the deal with Little Albert? |
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Definition
| Watson and Rayner study of conditioned phobias with loud noises and rats |
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Term
| three types of exposure therapy? |
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Definition
1) mental imagery
2) systematic desensitization (gradually ramp up reality of phobia)
3) flooding: exposure to most realistic version of phobia |
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Term
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Definition
- only takes one exposure to negative stimulus
- adaptive and evolutionary: predatory animal prevention
- rat example with radiation therapy
- Chemotherapy + taste aversion |
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Term
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Definition
- ex: pedophiles given electric shock when shown pictures of children
- alcoholics given alcohol + drug = sickness
- short term changes in behavior due to extinction |
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Term
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Definition
| learning through consequences |
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Term
| what are the three main differences between classical and operant conditioning? |
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Definition
1) voluntary behaviors or responses
2) have control over start/stop of behavior
3) CS occurs before behavior in CC; in OC, they come after |
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Term
| Thorndike's Law of Effect |
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Definition
| behaviors followed by satisfying consequence will occur more often; behavior followed by annoying consequence will less likely occur |
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Term
| What are the four types of consequences? |
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Definition
| positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, aversive (positive) punishment, response cost (negative) |
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Term
| what are the effects of reinforcement? |
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Definition
| STRENGTHENS frequency or likelihood of behavior by using consequence |
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Term
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Definition
consequence is the adding of a stimulus to increase a behavior
- ex: giving a child a toy for cleaning room |
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Term
| primary vs. secondary reinforcer |
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Definition
- primary reinforcer: biological needs, food, water
- secondary reinforcer: something that allows you to get a primary reinforcer, material goods |
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Term
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Definition
consequence is the REMOVAL of an aversive stimulus
- ex: child cleans room, parents stop nagging |
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Term
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Definition
DECREASES the likelihood and intensity of behavior
- ex: electric shock, bad grade |
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Term
| aversive (positive) punishment |
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Definition
behavior weakened by presence of punishment
- electric shock, spanking |
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Term
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Definition
removing a welcome stimulus
- i.e. loss of privilege, possession, monetary fines, etc. |
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Term
| What are necessary characteristics of punishments in order for them to be effective? |
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Definition
| consistency, immediacy, intense |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
using smaller approximations of behavior and reinforcing them
ex: training a dog gradually to jump on its hind legs |
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Term
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Definition
training last step of sequence and working backwards
i.e. rat through a maze; sequence of behaviors |
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Term
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Definition
| every time behavior is done, it is punished, 1:1 ratio |
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Term
| what are the four types of partial (intermittent) reinforcement? |
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Definition
| fixed ratio, variable-ratio schedule, fixed interval schedule, variable interval |
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Term
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Definition
reinforced for a set number of responses
- high rates of behavior
- pausing each time it is reinforced
- credit cards, punch cards |
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Term
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Definition
reinforcement occurs after a changing number of responses: average number is set
- produces high rate of behavior
- more consistent rate, less pausing, less extinction
- ex: slot machines, lottery |
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Term
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Definition
first response after a certain amount of time is reinforced
- slowing after reinforcement
- ex: midterm exams |
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Term
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Definition
first response after a variable amount of time is reinforced: averages to a given value
- steadier responses
- ex: pop quizzes, radio sweepstakes "during this hour" |
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Term
| behaviorist model of learning |
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Definition
| behavior is predictable based on classical or operant conditioning: biological basis for learning |
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Term
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Definition
over time, repeated aversive events lead to EXPECTANCY that one cannot escape them; decrease in learning and motivation
- different from behaviorist model because the organism is THINKING between stimulus and response
- i.e. Rescorla's study of tone + shock, nothing + shock conditioned organisms equally for both responses |
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Term
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Definition
| roundabout maze for food --> direct pathway for mice: evidence that they have a mental layout and will use it to their advantage; not conditioned for a direct route |
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Term
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Definition
learning that is hidden and occurs but is not demonstrated until later when there si an incentive to perform
- no motivation, many errors in maze
- after rewarded with food --> fewer errors, jump in learning curve |
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Term
|
Definition
religious, political people: predisposed cognitive self-evaluation
- feelings of pride, living up to standard |
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Term
| observational learning and the four steps of SOR |
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Definition
behaviors that are acquired because you've seen someone else do it
- Stimulus-Organism-Response (SOR) Learning based on 1) attention, 2) retention, 3) reproduction, 4) motivation
- i.e. reproduction of behavior on clown dolls |
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Term
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Definition
| neurological changes when learning occurs; sensory neurons develop more release points, more neurons develop receptor sites |
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Term
| information processing model of memory + two types |
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Definition
most dominant model: different types of information processed at different stages of memory
1) sensory memory: brief memories for sensory events (flashing letters)
2) Partial report conditioning: entire image stored briefly in picture form but decays too quickly to process or retrieve |
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Term
| sensory memory + 2 subcategories |
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Definition
memory that briefly holds incoming sensory information.
Iconic memory: visual memory for sensory info
Echoic memory: capacity for sounds
- large capacity, brief storage |
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Term
| Short-Term (Working) Memory (generally) |
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Definition
| A memory that temporarily holds a limited amount of info, allowing us to maintain it in consciousness: very brief retention |
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Term
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Definition
1) visuospacial sketchpad: stores visual and spatial info
2) phonological loop: storage of representations of sounds
3) central executive: directs overall action
(episodic buffer) |
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Term
|
Definition
element of short term memory that briefly stores mental representations of sounds
- Phonological store or code created
- Phonological confusion: remembering words, letters or numbers that don't rhyme or sound alike
- Articulatory expression: cannot focus on more than one thing at a time |
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Term
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Definition
maintenance rehearsal = repetition
elaborative rehearsal = meaning of info
magic # = 7 +/- 2 |
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Term
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Definition
| dividing information into sections or groups for easier understanding and memory |
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Term
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Definition
memories that last past consciousness
- capacity, duration and code are all infinitely large |
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Term
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Definition
| the initial processing of information and storage into memory |
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Term
| retrieval + the two types |
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Definition
re-accessing encoded memories
1) recall = freely generated (i.e. short answer)
2) recognition = assess whether old/new, correct/incorrect (i.e. multiple choice, T/F) |
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Term
| what are the two levels of processing for long term memory? |
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Definition
1) deeper processing: processing for meaning
2) shallow processing: visual, sound characteristics |
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Term
| episodic memory + what type of memory |
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Definition
LTM: memories for events that happened to you personally
- first-hand perspective
- code = sights, sounds, senses of event |
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Term
| semantic memory + what type of memory |
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Definition
LTM: organized knowledge about the world; factual information
- code = verbal or language-based |
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Term
| procedural memory + what type of memory is it? |
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Definition
LTM: knowledge about how to do something, procedural in nature
- code = not always verbal, sometimes motor-based |
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Term
| declarative vs. nondeclarative memory? |
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Definition
- declarative (explicit) memory can be consciously recollected and verbally shared (i.e. episodic, semantic)
- non-declarative (implicit) memory cannot be consciously or verbally reported (i.e. procedural) |
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Term
| serial position effect + two types? |
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Definition
effect of order in which info is presented
1) primacy effect: items at beginning of list best remembered (LTM)
2) items at the end of list best remembered |
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Term
| what is interference and what are the two types of interference? |
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Definition
Decreased efficiency in remembering something because of learning something else:
1) Proactive interference: list A prevents proper learning of list B (i.e. old info blocks new info)
2) Retroactive interference: where newer information locks older information.
* the more closely related the information, the more interference |
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Term
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Definition
| tendency to remember more information if it is about the self |
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Term
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Definition
the connection between study conditions and test conditions: greater likelihood for recall: emotional states, levels of activity, MOOD DEPENDENCE
- ex: underwater word list study |
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Term
| explain the Networks of Activation and Spreading Activation model of storage and organization |
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Definition
| Nodes of information activate one concept --> related concepts become activated (ex: fire engine --> red) |
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Term
| explain the Hierarchical model of storage and organization |
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Definition
| concepts are stored by categories: distinguished by characteristics or features: "birds," "cities in Canada," etc. |
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Term
| generate effect of study? |
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Definition
| more likely to remember information if during studying, you actively retrieve information rather than passively receive or "memorize" |
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Term
| massed vs. distributed practice |
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Definition
| reviewing same thing over and over vs. distributing information over time |
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Term
| is there a connection between expertise and better memory? |
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Definition
| expertise does not equal better memory: chess masters vs. novices in remembering board pieces; poor at randomly placed pieces, stronger at situational |
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Term
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Definition
- short-term memory fine
- could remember name, occupation, language, events before surgery
- Anterograde amnesia: frozen in 1950s; episodic AND semantic deficits
- Retrograde Amnesia: could not remember events in the weeks leading up to surgery because it was not yet encoded into LTM
- motor skills, word stems and priming |
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Term
| Clive Wearing's memory deficits? |
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Definition
- infection in brain led to severe memory deficits: damage to temporal & frontal lobes
- only memory is his consciousness
- severe amnesia |
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Term
|
Definition
| maintaining information in LTM over time |
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Term
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Definition
a memory aid for organizing information into more meaningful units and providing extra cues to help retrieve info from LTM
- visual imagery, mental pictures
- organization, acronyms |
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Term
|
Definition
changing attitudes --> reconstructive memory
i.e. attitudes towards abortion ten years ago vs. now |
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Term
| tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon |
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Definition
- predict same first letter of word and number of syllables half the time
- words organized by physical characteristics; meaning kept separate
- can often remember within 2 minutes
- universal experience
- metacognition: awareness about your own mental processes |
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Term
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Definition
people are capable of changing connections of info in brain and letting them be forgotten and replaced if told or if necessary
- forget vs. remember experiment |
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Term
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Definition
recollection of an incorrect time, place, person, event; self-generated memories vs. actually encountered memories
- i.e. "sweet" in word list |
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Term
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Definition
| inability to remember experiences before the age of three; may not have developed sense of meaning, hierarchy system or language |
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Term
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Definition
memories influenced by false or misleading information
- ex: car accident
- suggestibility in children, custody cases |
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Term
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Definition
| memory for events that need to be accomplished in the future |
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Term
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Definition
| began studying after JFK assassination: clearer memories for specific, important events? --> actually, memory is no better than for other events |
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Term
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Definition
| negative events, situations, etc. remembered better than positive ones |
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Term
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Definition
| the study of the way humans develop over time |
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Term
| what are the three types of human development? |
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Definition
1) physical: changes in body, brain, physical abilities
2) Cognitive: ways our thinking changes as we develop, changes in processing and thinking abilities
3) Social: changes in the way we interact with others |
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Term
| what are the three key issues in relation to human development? |
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Definition
1) Nature vs. Nurture
2) Whether development occurs during critical vs. sensitive periods (ex: language development)
3) Development occurs continually vs. discontinually? |
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Term
| critical vs. sensitive periods |
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Definition
Critical period: the time period where development must occur or opportunity is lost
Sensitive: time period that is important to development but not necessarily prevents future events from happening |
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Term
| Explain the stage-based models vs. continuous models for the key issue #3 of continuity vs. discontinuity in human development |
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Definition
Stage-based model: each stage of development is qualitatively different from one another
Continuous model: Development happens gradually and constantly |
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Term
|
Definition
measures people of different ages at a single time
- weakness = different individual experiences/upbringings
- strength = quick, easy
- ex: knowledge of computer technology |
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Term
|
Definition
test same cohort or group over time
- strength: removes individual differences
- weakness: unique cohort effects, costly, takes long time, dropouts
- ex: 7 Up documentary! |
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Term
|
Definition
combines cross-sectional and longitudinal designs: tracks different age groups over time
- most complete but very costly and time-consuming study |
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Term
| what are the three main stages of prenatal development? |
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Definition
| germinal period, embryonic period, fetal period |
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Term
| germinal stage of prenatal development |
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Definition
first two weeks:
- zygote stage = fertilized egg; attaches to uterus 10-14 days after conception
- about half fail to attach (especially male) |
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Term
| embryonic stage of prenatal development |
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Definition
weeks 2-8:
- placenta, umbilical cord
- bodily organs and systems begin to form
- sex determined by level of testosterone |
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Term
| fetal stage of prenatal development |
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Definition
week 9 until birth:
- muscles strengthen, bodily systems develop
- age of viability = 24 weeks
- size restraints on brain size |
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Term
|
Definition
external agents that cause abnormal prenatal developments:
- rubella, STDs, environmental toxins, drugs, alcohol, Nicotine |
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Term
| sensory capabilities and perceptual preferences of newborns |
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Definition
- very nearsighted
- Preferential Looking Procedure: infants prefer to look at complex patterns, prefer mother's face
- reasonably well developed sense of taste, touch, smell
- prefer human voices to other sounds |
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Term
| reflexes and learning of newborns |
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Definition
Reflexes: automatic, inborn behaviors that occur in response to specific stimuli
Rooting Reflex: turn head towards touch
Sucking Reflex: suck on objects in mouth
- can be classically conditioned
- can imitate facial expressions |
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Term
|
Definition
genetically programmed biological processes that govern our growth
- infants acquire particular skills; appear in same sequence |
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Term
|
Definition
| tendency for development to proceed in a head-to-foot direction |
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Term
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Definition
| development begins along the innermost parts of the body and continues toward the outermost parts |
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Term
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Definition
Piaget's model: organized patterns of thought and action
i.e. sucking reflex, "doggie" identification |
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Term
| assimilation vs. accommodation of schemas? |
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Definition
Assimilation: new experiences incorporated into existing schemas
- thumbsucking, calling a cat "doggie"
Accommodation: modify or change existing schemas with new information |
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Term
| Piaget's theory of cognitive development |
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Definition
| one must acquire skills sequentially in order to move on to the next |
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Term
| sensorimotor stage of Piaget's cog dev model |
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Definition
Age 0-2
- understand their world through sensory experiences, physical interactions
- lack object permanence
- language starts around age 1 |
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Term
|
Definition
age 2-7
- represent their world through words and mental images
- lack understanding of basic mental operations or rules
- conservation of liquid, number, mass
- irreversibility and centration
- animism
- egocentrism |
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|
Term
| concrete operational stage of Piaget's cog dev model |
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Definition
age 7-12
- perform mental problems concerning concrete objects or situations
- reversibility, theory of mind
- difficulty with abstract reasoning |
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Term
| formal operational stage of Piaget's cog dev model |
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Definition
age 12 --> adolescence:
- ability to think logically and systematically about concrete and abstract problems |
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Term
| zone of proximal development |
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Definition
the difference between what a child can do independently and what they can do with the assistance from an adult or more advanced peer
- ex: visual search, attention span and speed increase |
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Term
|
Definition
a biologically based general style of reacting emotionally and behaviorally to the environment
- "easy," "difficult," or "slow-to-warm-up" children
- overall temperament is weakly stable during infancy, but strongly stable throughout childhood |
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Term
|
Definition
emotional connection between child and their primary caregiver
- first few years of life seem to be critical period
- monkey experiments |
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Term
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Definition
| a person's beliefs about the "mind" and the ability to understand other people's mental states (difficult for younger children) |
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Term
| Erikson's Psychosocial Theory |
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Definition
| personality develops through confronting a series of eight major psychosocial stages, each of which involves a different "crisis" over how we view ourselves in relation to other people and the world |
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Term
|
Definition
distress over contact with unfamiliar people
- emerges around 6-7 months, ends by 18 months |
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Term
|
Definition
distress over being separated from a primary caregiver
- peaks around 12-16 months, disappears between 2-3 years of age |
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|
Term
| physical development in adulthood |
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Definition
- maximum muscle strength reached at 25-30
- vision, hearing, reaction time and coordination peak in early to mid-20s
- muscles become weaker and less flexible after 40
- metabolism slows
- visual acuity declines during middle age |
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|
Term
|
Definition
neural networks continue to become more efficient
- brain declines in later adulthood |
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|
Term
| reasoning and information processing |
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Definition
- info processing, memory, and fluid intelligence decline during adulthood
- crystallized intelligence: ability to remember and retain info
- fluid intelligence: ability to problem solve, on-your-feet thinking |
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Term
| cognitive impairment in old age |
|
Definition
symptoms of dimentia:
- impaired memory, poor judgement, language problems, disorientation, uninhibited behavior, loss of ability to perform familiar tasks, significant physical decline --> NOT inevitable |
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|
Term
| Freud's psychosexual theory of development |
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Definition
stage theory: stages or time periods of development: person can either complete or not complete stages before moving on, incompletion leads to unhealthy personality
- each stage represented by an erogenous zone |
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Term
| what are the five stages of Freud's psychosexual theory of development? |
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Definition
1) oral stage
2) anal stage
3) phallic stage
4) latency stage
5) genital stage |
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|
Term
| oral stage of Freud's PTOD? |
|
Definition
birth --> 18 mos
- focus on oral pleasures
- too much/too little = oral fixation
- may lead to smoking, nail biting, drinking, etc. |
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|
Term
| anal stage of Freud's PTOD? |
|
Definition
18 mos --> 3 years
- bladder control
- over/under development --> anal fixation
- anal retentive = obsession with cleanliness, perfection and control
- anal expulsive = messy and disorganized |
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|
Term
| phallic stage of Freud's PTOD? |
|
Definition
3-6 years
- focus on males, genitals
- boys develop unconscious desires for mothers and hatred for fathers (competition)
- eventual fear of father leads to identification with him
- Electra complex = opposite
- fixation --> sexual deviancies; weak or confused sexual identities |
|
|
Term
| latency stage of Freud's PTOD? |
|
Definition
6 years --> puberty
- sexual urges repressed
- children interact with same sex peers |
|
|
Term
| genital stage of Freud's PTOD? |
|
Definition
puberty --> forevaaa
- reawakened sexual urges, interest in opposite sex |
|
|
Term
| stages of emotional development |
|
Definition
- distress = very early development
- surprise and joy = 7 mos
- sense of self = 18 mos; envy and embarrassment follow |
|
|
Term
| moral developmental stages |
|
Definition
1) Preconventional stage: consequences are used to determine right/wrong
2) Conventional stage: social rules govern right/wrong
3) Postconventional stage: personal ethical rules and values
- moral intuition: emotions influence morality |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| impairment in speech comprehension and/or production |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an enduring increase in synaptic strength that occurs after a neural circuit is rapidly stimulated |
|
|
Term
| source/monitoring confusion |
|
Definition
| the tendency to recall something or recognize it as familiar but to forget where it was encountered |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| brain disorder caused by lack of thyamine in the brain |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| the organism learns a response to terminate an aversive stimulus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the organism learns a response to avoid an aversive stimulus |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| desirable behaviors are quickly reinforced with tokens that are later turned in for tangible rewards (Chuckie Cheese) |
|
|
Term
| generalization and discrimination in operant/classical conditioning |
|
Definition
generalization: response to similar stimuli
discrimination: response will occur to one stimulus but not another |
|
|
Term
| higher-order conditioning |
|
Definition
| in classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus after it is paired with another conditioned stimulus (rather than with the original UCS) |
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