Developmental Psychology

22 Pairs of Chromosomes

1 pair of sex chromosomes

female XX male XY

prenatal development

period of zygote

fertilized egg

enters a period of rapid cell division 2 weeks

fertilization until implantation

prenatal development

period of embryo

developing human organism from 2weeks through

2nd month

-major bodily systems form

prenatal development

period of fetus

-emergence of bone tissue until birth

-growth and finishing stage

-38-40 weeks: full term

Three stages of Labor

1) dilation and effacement of the cervix

2) expulsion of the fetus

3) expulsion of the placenta

22 weeks 0-10%

25 weeks 50-80%

27 weeks 90%

38 weeks 98%

Newborn permanent reflexes

- no reflexes at birth

-reflexes last too long

Social Development

encompasses the changes in

feelings, interpersonal thought, interpersonal behavior

Attachment

-Strong emotional connection with another person

-Seek person out in times of stress for comfort/protection

attach

Child----> Parent figure

 <--- caregiving

Attachment cont.

-Also involves a sense of security around the caretaker

-feelings of distress when the caretaker is absent

Attachment theories:

Cupboard love

child attaches to the person meeting her physiological needs

(eg, food, warmth)

Attachment theories:

Primary return to the womb craving

Attachment theories:

Bowlby's theory

Child attaches to the person meeting her emotional needs

-tested the idea that "content comfort" lead to "love" in rhesus monkeys

Result= infant monkeys attached to the cloth surrogate mother

-Raised by wire mother = show fear in strange situations

-Mary Ainsworth

-Involves 2 separations and 2 reunions with caregiver

-like a baby stress test

-asses quality of attachment

-used between 12-18 months

-focus on bx to mom on reunion

-strange situation reveals 4 attachment patterns

Attachment Patterns

Secure

-Child welcomes the mother's return and seeks closeness to her

-65% in USA

-at home, parent is sensitive and responsive to child's emotional needs.

Attachment Patterns

Insecure-Avoidant

-Child ignores the mother

-20% in the USA

-At home, parent rejects child's emotional needs

Attachment Patterns

Insecure-Ambivalent

-Child exhibits anger at the mother while seeking to be close to her

-10% in USA

-at home, parent inconsistently responds to child's emotional needs.

Attachment Patterns

Insecure-Disorganized

-Show odd motor behavior (rocking) and dazed facial expressions

-5% in USA

-At home, parent is abusive

-or ???

securely attached kids have:

-higher self esteem than insecure kids

-better peer relationships than insecure kids

-maximize their cognitive potential

attachment patterns are evident in adulthood

reflect emotional connections to:

parents

significant others

relationships in general

but not children

secure attachment 60%

avoidant pattern 25%

anxious pattern 10%

adult attachment patterns predict the attachment patterns of their children

Socialization

-Socialization is interactive

-Socialization is a lifelong process

-children are biologically prepared for

Socialization

Authoritarian and permissive parents: children have low self esteem

Uninvolved have worst outcomes

Authoritative parents: children have high self esteem

-meaning of friendship changes with age

-gratification from friends is important for young children

-older children focus on intimacy with friends

self disclosure and mutual understanding

-influence of peers increases w/ age

parents' advice more valued than peers on :

-life goals -politics -use of hard drugs

-religion -morality

sex, music, styles, use of alcohol/soft drugs

- kids share parental views concerning personal values

-parental influence highest where there is a good parent-child relationship

Cognitive development

learning, reasoning over lifespan

-children construct own reality

-constructions are in the form of structures called schemas

0-2 years

understand world through senses and motor actions

develop object permanence

sensorimotor:

object permanence

objects continue to exist when you can no longer see them

-before 6 months infants act as if objects cease to exist

-peekaboo becomes fun

age 2 to 6 or 7

emergence of symbolic thought

pretend play

egocentrism- cant take on another's perspective

-lack the concept of conservation: properties remain the same despite changes in form

Piaget's stages: concrete operations

age 7 - 11 or 12

can do logical operations

understand reversibility- mentally going through a series of steps backwards

- can do conservation

-cant think abstractly or hypothetically

age 12 - adulthood

formal operations- can do hypothetical and abstract reasoning

-found primarily in people's areas of expertise

Adolescent egocentrism

imaginary audience- the strong focus on self leads adolescents to feel that everyone is focused on them as well

personal fable- adolescents assume their feelings are unique (no one has ever loved so deeply, etc)

-all powerful

early maturing boys

more attractive to girls and adults

taller and stronger

better in sports

happier, more confident, do better in school

less good at sports

teased by peers

self conscious about size and manliness

early maturing girls

recieves early sexual advances

end up shorter and heavier than late maturers

like bodies in early adolescence, don't like them in late adolescence

don't like their bodies in early adolescence, like bodies in late adolescence

-end up taller and slimmer than early maturers

positive effects of stress

stress response system

-general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

-body's adaptive response to stress

-very general

-responds no matter what causes stress

phase1- alarm reaction p2- resistance cope

p3- exhaustion

catastrophes: unpredictable large scale events, eg war, earthquake

-can have significant health consequences

Life changes: death, marriage, loss of job, divorce

-make person more vulnerable to disease

daily hassles: annoying events in everyday life. eg, roommates, traffic

-cumulative effect on health

score

450                                                    

300 80% chance of major health problem

150 50% chance                                  

0                                                

-measures irritating daily demands

-predicts illness better than the social readjustment scale

uplifts: positive events, buffer against daily hassles

-choice between 2 appealing outcomes

-easy to resolve, low stress

choice betw/ 2 unappealing outcomes

more stressful than approach-approach

one goal w/ appealing and unappealing aspects

most stressful type of conflict

often see vacillation

social conditions that promote stress. eg., povery, racism, crime

-low SES tend to have highest levels of stress

-culture clashes lead to stress

e.g, company owned by different culture

refugees, immigrants suffer too

percieved control: explanatory style

optimism: use external, unstable and specific explanations for negative events

pessimism: use internal, stable, and global explanations for negative effects

-predicts worse health outcomes

time urgency

general hostility

intense ambition and competitiveness

initial research, associated with heart disease

more easygoing

not associated w/ heart disease

-high levels of hostility increase chance of all disease. eg, cancer

-time urgency and competitiveness not associated with disease

stress and resistance to disease

-indirect effects of stress on health

promotes jeopardizing behaviors, e.g, smoking, drinking

-physiological illnesses- physiological effects of psychological states

hypertension, headaches

social factors promoting health

types of social support

emotional: expressions or concerns, empathy, positive regard

tangible: direct assistance e.g., lending money, providing meals

informational: suggestions, advice

benefits of social support

improves ability to cope with stress and benefits health

-stress feels less threatening

-decrease intensity of physical reactions to stress

-reduces feelings of negative emotions

managing or changing the stressor

use if problem seems alterable

try to feel better about situation

use if problem is out of our control

males: tend to get angry or avoid stressors "fight or flight pattern"

females: more likely to help others and make use of their social support networks

a "tend and befriend" style

stress and exercise

aerobic exercise can reduce stress, depression, and anxiety

effect above relaxation treatment

tendency, when analyzing another's behavior, to understimate the impact of he situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

-our behavior is affected by our inner attitudes as well as by external social influences

start with a small request

follow up with a large one

start with a large request

follow up with a small one

social thinking: low ball

make an attractive initial offer

after getting commitment, make terms less good

influence results from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

factors influencing conformity:

informational social influence 

people are unsure of situation

people are of low group status

people lack information

the behavior is public

teacher and learner

administer shocks

social facilitation

improved performance on tasks in the presence of others

-occurs with simple or well learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered

-amount of food consumed during a meal

-winding a fishing reel

enhancement of a group's prevailing attitudes through discussion within the group

-if a group is like minded, discussion strengthens prevailing opinions

helping those in need

decreasing liklihood of altruism:

diffusion of responsibility- feeling that other bystanders will take responsibility in an emergency

complex

biological factoes

frustration effects

social effects

testosterone weakly correlated w/ aggression

low cortisol associated with aggressive behavior

alcohol usage increases aggression

peers

personality

parenting

violent media accounts for 10-15%

aggression learned by:

observation and matching

reinforcement

physical punishment, threats, and humiliation

Social relations attratction

proximity

similarity- friends share common attitudes, beliefs, and interests

matching hypothesis- choose mate similar to self

youthfulnesss may be associated w/ health and fertility

-choose a mate similar to self in attraction, if different, mate has a compensating asset

eg money, power

-averaged faces are the most attractive

feminized characteristics

eyebrow arch

bigger eyes

narrow jaw and nose

fuller lips

-men and women rate feminized as more attractive

men and women prefer feminine features in man

masculinized features: pronounced eyebrow ridge, big jaw, square face

-ovulating women shift preferrences for male attractiveness towards hyper masuline

-interest in opposite sex increases dramatically during adolescence

attractiveness worldwide

men prefer youth and health

women prefer resources and social status

sexual strategy and evolutionary theory

males

can have large number of offspring w/ many females

have 2 different strategies:

short term: seek young fertile female

long term: seek committed relationship with seuxal access

-men will prefer young females

sexual strategy and evolutionary theory

females

have few offspring w/ major investment in each

single strategy: use short term liasons to assess and attract males

women will prefer older males with resources

social relations- love:

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another

usually present at the onset of a love relationship

associated with neurotransmitter PEA

social relations- love:

compassionate love

deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

associated with release of oxytocin

breast feeding

eating chocolate

orgasm

ABCDE's of romantic relationships:

how do romantic relationships develop?

relationships undergo stages of development

social-exchange theory: relationships characterized by the rewards and costs of maintaining the relationships

5 stages/phases:

attraction

building

continuation

deterioration

ending

ABCDE's of romantic relationships:

attraction

ABCDE's of romantic relationships:

building

small talk

self disclosure: the revelation of personal and intimate information

should refrain from self disclosing intimate information too rapidly

women tend to self disclose earlier than men

ABCDE's of romantic relationships:

continuation

mutual cyclical growth

-the need for one's partner produces commitment;

-commitment promotes acts that enhance the relationship;

-these acts build trust, increasing commitment

ABCDE's of romantic relationships:

deterioration

relationship start to fail when it becomes less rewarding than it was before

may result from boredom or jealousy

ABCDE's of romantic relationships:

deterioration

active response

ABCDE's of romantic relationships:

deterioration

passive response

merely waiting for the relationship on its own or deteriorate to its end

ABCDE's of romantic relationships:

deterioration

breaking up

occurs when:

partners find little satisfaction in affiliation

the barriers to leaving a relationship are low

there are alternative partners available

psychological disorders

psychopathology

problematic patterns of thought, feeling, and behavior

-disrupted functioning at home, work, and in the person's social life

-patterns that cause distress in the person or others

current perspective on psychological problems

diasthesis+ environmental stressors

=

psychological disorders

diasthesis-stress model

diasthesis

vulnerability to psychological disorders

genetic inheritance

biological problems such as brain abnormalities or neurotransmitter problems

early learning experiences

diasthesis-stress model

environmental stressors

noxious physical stressors

relationship//job problems

trauma, abuse, neglect

diagnostic and statistical manual

the DSM-IV uses a multi-axial system of diagnosis

I- symptoms that cause distress(clinical syndromes)

II- personality disorders and mental retardation

III- medical conditions that may be relevant to understanding and treating a psychological disorder

IV- psycholongical and environmental problems

V- global assessment of functioning

substance related disorders 20%

anxiety disorders 17%

mood disorders 7%

antisocial personality disorder 3%

schizophrenia and related disorders 2%

Axis I: anxiety disorders

primary disturbance is distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that produce anxiety

types: GAD, phobia, OCD, PTSD, panic

generalized anxiety disorder

GAD

more or less constant worry about many issues

the worry seriously interferes with functioning

physical symptoms: headaches, stomachaches, muscle tension, irritability

intense irrational fear that may focus on

-category of events

-event or situation

-social setting

it is not phobic to be simply anxious about something

fear of specific object

animal- eg snakes

subject- eg blood

situation- eg height

more often in females than males

fear of being embarassed in public

-public speaking

-fear of crowds, strangers

-meeting new people

-eating in public

considered phobic if interfere with normal behavior

equally often in males and females

anxiety disorders: obsessive compulsive disorder

OCD

obsessions- irrational, disturing thoughts that intrude into consciousness

compulsions- repetitive actions performed to alleviate obsessions

checking and washing most common compulsions

panic attacks- helpless terror, high physiological arousal

1/4 of all heart attacks may actually be panic attacks

very frightening: sufferers live in fear of having them

anxiety disorders: posttraumatic stress disorder

PTSD

follows a traumatic event or events such as war, rape, or assault

symptoms: nightmares, flashbacks, sleeplessness, easily startled, depression, irritability

Axis I: Mood Disorders

bipolar disorders

major depression

dysthymia

seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

symptoms include:

sadness

feeling of worthlessness

changes in sleep

changes in eating

suicidal behavior

prolonged, very severe depressoin

lasts without remission for 2 weeks

less severe, but long lasting depression

lasts for at least 2 years

-can have both at the same time

-women diagnosed more often than men

seasonal related severe depression

unique cluster of symptoms:

intense hunger

gain weight in winter

sleep more than usual

depressed more in evening than in morning

Axis I: somatoform disorders

real physical symptoms with no biological cause

 conversion: physical symptoms with no physical explanation

somatization: repeated, varying symptoms with no physical cause; often of many years' duration

hypochondriasis: excessive attention to state of health along with preoccupation with minor aches and pain of living

Axis I: Dissociative Disorders

trauma- instigating event

partial or total loss of information about self

usually triggered by a traumatic experience

psychogenic fugue

amnesia accompanied by fleeing the area

develops a new identity

feelings of unreality

mind leaves body

limb goes numb and doesnt feel like it belongs to you

formerly called multiple personality disorder

multiple personalities

controversy: not really distinct personalities

Axis I: paraphilia

voyeurism

Axis I: paraphilia

fetishism

Axis I: paraphilia

pedophilia

comes from greek meaning "split" and "mind"

split refers to loss of touch w/ reality

not split personalities

Symptoms of Schizophrenia:

disorganized thinking

delusion

-delusions of persecution "they're out to get me" paranoia

-delusions of grandeur: think of self as extremely important e.g, view self as God

-delusions of being controlled: the CIA is controlling my brain with a radio signal

Symptoms of Schizophrenia:

disturbed perception

hallucinations:

hearing or seeing things that aren't there

contributes to delusions

command hallucinations: voices giving orders

Symptoms of Schizophrenia:

disorganized speech

overinclusion: jumping from idea to idea without the benefit of logical association

paralogic: on the surface, seems logical, but seriously flawed

e.g, Jesus was a man with a beard, I am a man with a beard, therefore I am jesus

Symptoms of Schizophrenia:

inappropriate behavior and affect

-behavior is inappropriate for situation e.g, wearing sweaters and overcoats on hot days

-affect is inappropriately expressed

flat affect- no emotion at all in face or speech

inappropriate affect- laughing at serious things, crying at funny things

catatonic behavior- unresponsive to environment, usually marked by immobility for extended periods

Subtypes of Schizophrenia:

paranoid type

delusions of persecution

delusions of grandeur

Subtypes of Schizophrenia:

catatonic type

Subtypes of Schizophrenia:

disorganized type

delusions and hallucinations with little meaning

disorganized speech, behavior, flat affect

Axis II: Personality disorders

dependent

helpless; excessive need to be taken care of; submissive and clinging behavior; difficulty in making decisions

Axis II: Personality disorders

histrionic

Axis II: Personality disorders

narcissistic

exaggerated ideas of self importance and achievements; preoccupation with fantasies of success; arrogance

Axis II: Personality disorders

antisocial

Treatment of Psychological Disorders

women seek more treatment than men

college educated seek more therapy than high school educated

whites seek more treatment than nonwhites

higher income seek more treatment than lower income

Therapy types:

insight therapy

Therapy types:

behavioral therapies

Therapy types:

cognitive therapies

Therapy types:

biomedical therapies

Insight Therapy:

psychodynamic therapy

Freud

psychological problems result from inner mental conflicts

must make these conflicts conscious

patients resist attempts to bring unconscious into conscious

unconscious material causes anxiety

 "forgetting"

refusing to discuss certain topics

Person Centered Therapy

Carl Rogers

Focus on thoughts, abilities, cleverness of client; not focused on insights of therapist

-therapist is a sounding board for client's thoughts

-unconditional positive regard: client is worthy and capable no matter what client does or says

creates safe, nonjudgmental therapy

-People disturb themselves with their own thoughts

"I must be perfect", "Everyone must love me", "The past determines the future", "It is catastrophic when things dont go as planned"

Goals: identify maladaptive ways of thinking, replace these with adaptive ways

Albert Ellis

Negative emotions arise from people's irrational interpretations of experiences

Ellis' rational-emotive therapy

musterbations

irrational belief that you must do something

Ellis' rational-emotive therapy

awfulizing

A: activating event in the environment

B: belief triggered in client's mind by event

C: emotional consequence of the belief

A------B-----C

 loss of job----Im worthless------depression

Behavior Therapy:

operant conditioning techniques

time out

Time out- removing individual from reinforcing situation

Behavior Therapy:

operant conditioning techniques

token economies

Behavior Therapy:

operant conditioning techniques

stimulus satiation

Behavior Therapy:

Classical conditioning Techniques

aversion treatment

Used for bad habits

smoking, drinking, gambling

 -use of classical conditioning principles; painful or unpleasant stimulus follows the unwanted behavior

example: antabuse for alcahol usage

Behavior Therapy:

Classical conditioning Techniques

flooding

immerse consenting person in the fear stimulus

after fear subsides, calm sets in, is associated with the feared object

Behavior Therapy:

Classical conditioning Techniques

systematic desensitization

-teach relaxation

-create a hierarchy of fear ranging from least to most feared stimulus

-work through hierarchy while maintaining calm

Does Therapy work?

meta analysis

procedure for combining the results of many research studies

-people in treatment do better than those not

-some therapists are better than others; warm, understanding, motivated

-some types of therapy work better for specific problems

therapies for specific problems

cognitive-behavioral works best for fear and anxiety

cog-behavioral: combo of cog and bx techniques

insight best for self-esteem

psychodynamic best for work/school achievement

attempt to solved the disorder by altering bodily processes

psychoactive druhs highly sucessful in reducing in-patient population

trephining: drilling holes in head

blood letting

used for schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders

most work on neurotransmitter dopamine

problems: makes the person seem more normal, but doesn't increase life satisfaction

-unpleasant and painful side effects

affects neurotransmitters serotonin and norepinephrine

antidepressant drugs can life depression(requires 3-4 weeks)

used for bipolar disorder

especially effective for manic phases

drugs that facilitate the neurotransmitter gamma-amino-butyric-acid (GABA)

Benzodiazepines

cholorodiazepoxide (librium) and diazepam (Valium)

most effective for generalized anxiety

used in cases of severe, unrelenting depression

 -modren ECT is very different from early ECT

safer, patient given drugs to sedate beforehand, painless

70% of people who don't respond to other meds get relief with ECT

treatment of last resort

cingulotomy- partial destruction of structure in the limbic system

an external agent, such as a chemical, virus, or type of radiation that can cause damage to the zygote, embryo, or fetus

-fetal alcohol syndrome

-sudden infant death syndrome: smoking

aging

18-25 maturation into adulthood

 -changes that are programmed into genes and changes that arise from environmental events

-impairs communication among neurons

decline of strength and energy past age 50

test the same group of people repeatedly, at different ages

involve testing different groups of proplr, with each group comprised of individuals of a particular age

must ensure that groups are equated on all possible measures except age

rests on the idea that older pople come to focus on the limited time they have left, which in turn changes their motivations

matures in the bone marrow

psychoneuroimmunology

stress can affect the growth of some cancerous tumors

goal: not to change stressful stimulus, but to allow you to adapt to the stimulus- and, in doing so, to alter bodily functioning

mind-body interventions

benefits

improved mood and immune system functioning

increased lung functioning in people w/ asthma

improved control of pain

decreased levels of reported stress, emotional distress, and poor coping strategies

fewer subsequent heart problems

expectations of sickness can actually cause sickness

-variation of the placebo effect, but w/ expectation of a negative outcome rather than a positive one

the sense of letting go of self-restraint after transgressing a self-imposed rule about food

irrational thoughts that arise from a systematic bias in the way a person thinks about reality