-the distinctive and relatively enduring ways of thinking, feeling and acting that characterize a person's responses to life situations

1. components of identity that distinguish that person from other ppl

2.the behaviours are viewed as being caused primarily by internal rather than environmental factors

3.person's behaviours seem to "fit together" in a meaningful fashion, suggesting an inner personality that guides and directs behaviour

-the interpretation of dreams

-1900

*only 600 copies sold

1. id

2. ego

3. superego

-desire

-operates on pleasure principle

-the primitive and unconscious part of the personality that contains the instincts

-mediator

-operates on reality principle

-the 'executive' of the personality that is partly conscious and that mediates between the impulses of the id, the prohibitions of the superego and the dictates of reality

-morality

-strives for perfection

-the moral arm of the personality that internalizes the standards and values of society and serves as the person's conscience

-a neuro surgeon in France

-influences Freud's thinking on altered states of consciousness

-gets him thinking about sex

1825-1893

-Josef Breuer

-also influences Freud's thinking, on "catharsis"

-write a book together

the basic defence mechanism that actively keeps anxiety-arousing aterial in the unconscious

ex: a person who was sexually abused in childhood develops amnesia for the event

a person refuses to acknowledge anxiety-arousing aspects of the environment. The denial may involve either the emotions connected with the event or the event itself

ex: a man who is told he has terminal cancer, refuses to consider the possibility that he will not recover

an unacceptable or dangerous impulse is repressed, then directed at a safer substitute target

ex: a man who is harassed by his boss experiences no anger at work, goes home and abuses his wife and children

the emotion connected with an upsetting event is repressed, and the situation is dealt with as an intellectually interesting event

ex: a person who has been rejected in an imp. relationship talks in a highly rational manner about the "interesting unpredictability of love relationships"

an unacceptable impulse is repressed, then attributed to (projected onto) other ppl.

ex: a woman with strong repressed desires to have an affair continually accuses her husband of being unfaithful

person constructs a false but plausible explanation or excuse for an anxiety-arousing behaviour or event that has already occured

ex: a student caught cheating on an exam, justify by pointing out prof tests are unfair and besides everyone else was cheating too

an anxiety-arousing impulse is repressed, its psychic energy finds release in an exaggerated expression of the opp. behaviour

ex: a mom who harbours feelings of hatred for her child represses them and becomes overprotective of the child

what is sublimation?

a repressed impulse is released in the form of socially acceptable or even admired behaviour

ex: a man w/ strong hostile impulses becomes an investagative reporter who ruins political careers w/ his stories

innate concepts and memories -> ex: god, the hero, the good mother

memories that reside in the collective unconscious (Jung)

-acceptance, sympathy and love from others and self

-essential for healthy development

-ideally, +ve regard received from parents is unconditional

-independent of how the child behaves

-communicates that the child is inherently worthy of love

-a communicated attitude of total and unconditional acceptance of another person that conveys the person's intrinsic worth

personality roots in childhood

-info. slide

-Freud became convinced that patients problems often stemmed from childhood

-stages of sexual development that we must passed without becoming fixated to move onto next stage

- 0->2 years

-fixation = self-indulgence, dependency

-erogenous zone = mouth

-2->3 years

-fixation = compulsive cleanliness and rigid rules, or messy and dominant 

-> anal retentive and anal expulsive 

-erogenous zone = Anus

-3->7 years

-oedipus complex for boys (castration anxiety)

-penis envy for girls -> fixation: move to identity with same sex parent or gender confusion

-erogenous zone = genitals

-7->11 years

-period of dormant sexuality

-11->adult

-formation of social and sexual relationships

-erogenous = back to genital

-found 16 basic behaviour clusters through factor analysis

-can be reduced to 5 global factors

>extraversion

>anxiety

>tough-mindedness

>independence

>self-control

-introversion-extroversion

-stability-instability (use to be stability-neuroticism = refers to emotional stability)

-these 2 traits were thought to be independent of each other and produce various combinations of "traits"

-the 'big five' are thought to be universal

1. openness

2. conscientiousness

3. extraversion

4. agreeableness

5. neuroticism

*variations on 5 factors create diversity in personalities

what is social cognitive?

THEORY

HYPNOSIS

THEORY -> a cognitive-behavioural approach to personality, developed by Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel, that emphasizes the role of social learning, cognitive processes and self-regulation

HYPNOSIS -> the view that hypnotic experiences occur b.c. ppl are highly motivated to assume the role of being "hypnotized"

-Rotter's concept

-an expectancy concerning the degree of personal control we have in our lives

-ppl who have INTERNAL believe that life outcomes are under control/depend on own behaviour

-ppl who have EXTERNAL believe that their fates have less to do with their own control (fate, luck, chance)

what is a behavioural assessment?

-Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

-a widely used personality test whose items were developed using the empirical approach and by comparing various kinds of psychiatric patients with normal patient

Evaluating the trait approach

ADVANTAGES

Evaluating the trait approach

DISADVANTAGES

what is trephination?

what is vulnerability?

what is a stressor?

1. Distressing to self or others

2. Deviant - violates social norm

3. Dysfunctional for person or society

1.Emotional - feelings of tension

-apprehension

2.Cognitive - worry

-thoughts about inability to cope

3.Physiological - increased heart rate

-muscle tension

-other autonomic arousal symptoms

4.Behavioural - avoidance of feared situations

-decreased task performance

-increased startle response

-OCD

-an anxiety disorder characterized by persistent and unwanted thoughts and compulsive behaviour

4 symptoms of Depression

1.Emotional - sadness

-hopelessness

-anxiety

-misery

-inability to enjoi

2.Cognitive - negative cognitions about self, world and future

3.Motivational - loss of interest

-lack of drive

-difficulty starting anything

4.Somatic - loss of appetite

-lack of energy

-sleep difficulties

-weight loss/gain

what depressed ppl fall into, they have negative thoughts towards the world, oneself and the future seems to pop into consciousness automatically

-many depressed ppl cannot control their negative thoughts

interpretations of life outcomes

(self-enhancement attributional pattern/non-depressed ppl)

-depressed ppl attribute -ve outcomes to themselves

-depressed ppl attribute +ve outcomes to factors outside themselves

-non-depressed ppl attribute +ve outcomes to themselves

-non-depressed ppl attribute -ve outcomes to factors outside themsleves

-dissociative identity disorder

-a dissociative disorder in which two or more separate identities or personalities coexist within an individual

levels of analysis for schizophrenia

BIOLOGICAL

-clear genetic predisposition

-degenerative brain atrophy

-abnormalities in thalamus may produce disordered sensory input

-overactivity of excitatory neuro-transmitters, particularly dopamine

-frontal lobe dysfunction impairs executive functions

-regression to early developmental stage under severe stress

-attentional filtering problem; over-whelmed by stimulation

-disordered language processes that impair comprehension, comunication

-executive function deficits, resulting in poor self-management

-deficits in emotional responding

-thought disorder, including possible delusions

-stressful life events typically precede breakdown

-possible but as yet unidentified family dynamics

-neg. responses from others evoked by individual's odd behaviours

-expressed emotion by family related to relapses

-low socioeconomic settings (may be cause or effect)

-similar incidence across cultures, but better recovery in developing countries

-attention-defecit/hyperactivity disorder

-disorder in which problems may take the form of attentional difficulties, hyperactivity-impulsivity or a combination of the two that results in impaired functioning

-oppositional defiant disorder

-disorder in which a child consistently behaves in a disobedient, defiant and hostile manner that interferes with the child's functioning and interpersonal relationships

what is the Rorschach?

-on three major levels

1.location

2.content

3.determinants

-comprehensive scoring system -> some patterns imply normal personality and some imply psychopathology

Types of therapies for psychological disorders

PSYCHODYNAMIC

-psychoanalysis (Freud)

-brief psychodynamic therapies

-client-centered therapy (Rogers)

-gestalt therapy (Peris)

-rational-emotive therapy (Ellis)

-cognitive therapy (Beck)

-classical conditioning

->exposure

->systematic desensitization 

->aversion therapy

-operant conditioning

->positive reinforcement

->punishment

-modelling

->social skills training

-drug therapy

-electroconvulsive therapy

-psychosurgery

1.Unconditional positive regard ->therapists show clients that they genuinely care about and accept them w/o judgement

2.Empathy ->willingness and ability to view world through the client's eyes

3.Genuineness ->must be consistency between the way the therapist feels an the way s/he behaves

what is Gestalt therapy?

-often carried out in groups

-Gestalt therapists goal is to bring immediate awareness so that the client can be 'whole' once again

-Ellis's theory of emotional disturbance and his rational-emotive therapy are embodied in his ABCD model

A = 'activating event' that seems to trigger the emotion

B = 'belief system' that underlies the way in which a person appraises the event

C = emotional and behavioural 'consequences' of that appraisal

D = key to changing maladaptive emotions and behaviours: 'disputing' or challenging, an erroneous belief system

-therapeutic elements that are possessed by virtually any type of therapy and which may contribute to the similar positive effects shown by many different treatment approaches

example:

-faith in the therapist and a belief on the part of clients that they are recieving help

-a plausible explanation for their problems and an alternative way of looking at themselves and their problems

-a protective setting in which clients can experience and express heir deepest feelings within a supportive relationship

-an opportunity to practice new behaviours

-increased optimism and self-efficacy

-ECT

-a biomedical technique involving the application of electrical current to the brain that is used primarily to reduce severe depression

what is psychosurgery?

THERAPEUTIC BEHAVIOUR CHANGE

biological

eTHERAPEUTIC BEHAVIOUR CHANGE

psyschological

-cognitive and emotional changes brought about by cognitive therapies

-modifications of conditioned emotional responses by deconditioning procedures such as exposure, desensitization and aversion therapy

-behavioural changes produced by operant procedures

-self-concept changes brought about by psychotherapy (ex: client-centered, Gestalt therapy)

-insight into unconscious dynamics and development of more mature defences broughta bout by short and long term psychodynamic therapies

THERAPEUTIC BEHAVIOUR CHANGE

environmental

-life situation changes brought about by constructive behaviour changes learned in therapy or produced by biological means

-exposure to specific therapeutic terchniques administered by a metal-health expert

-a positive therapeutic relatioship that helps promote change and allows therapy techniques to be effective

-cultural factors that affect access to therapy, type of therapy and exposure to a culturally competent therapist

1. primary appraisal

2. secondary appraisal

3. judgments of what the consequences of the situation could be

4. appraisal of the personal meanings, that is, what the outcome might imply about us

-GAS

-Selye's description of the body's responses to a stressor, which includes successive phases of alarm reaction, resistance and exhaustion

1.alarm reaction - the shift to sympathetic dominance causes increased arousal

2. resistance - the adrenal glands release epinephrine, nonepinephrine and cortisol to maintain increased arousal

3. exhaustion - the adrenal glands lose their ability to function normally

-PTSD

-a pattern of distressing symptoms, such as flashbacks, 

nightmares, avoidance and anxiety responses that recur

after a traumatic experience

1. severe anxiety, physiological arousal (the stress response) and distress

2.painful uncontrollable reliving of the event/s in flashbacks, dreams and fantasies

3. emotional numbing and avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma

4. intense 'survivor guilt' in instances where others were killed but the individual  survived

commitment

control

challenge

-live under great pressure and are demanding of themselves and others

-bhaviours include rapid talking, moving, walking and eating

-exaggerated sense of time urgency an become very irritaated at delays or failures to meet their deadlines 

-characterized by high levels of competitiveness and ambition as well as aggressiveness and hostilitiy when things get in their way

LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

biological

-physiological responses of autonomic and endocrine systems to situational stressors

-stress effects on immune system

-individual differences in emotional reactivity to stressors

LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

psychological

-cognitive appraisal of environmental demands, resources, potential consequences and personal meaning of consequences

-personality factors, such as optimism and hardiness, that affect responses to stressors

-coping stragegies and skill with which they are applied

-self-efficacy and expectations of available support

LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

environmental

-number and nature of the stressful events

-availability of social support

-cultural factors that teach one how to respond to stressors

-coping strategy

-planning

-active coping and problem-solving

-suppressing competing activities

-exercising restraint

-assertive confrontation

-coping strategy

-positive reinterpretation

-acceptance

-denial

-repression

-escape-avoidance

-wishful thinking

-controlling feelings

-coping strategy

-help and guidance

-emotional support

-affirmation of worth

-tangible aid (ex: money)

identifies six major stages in the process of how people change:

precontemplation

contemplation

preperation

action

maintenance

termination

6 STAGES OF CHANGE

1.precontemplation > problem unrecognized or unacknowledged

2.contemplation > recognition of problem; contemplating change

3.preparation > preparing to try to change behaviour

4.action > implementing change strategies

5.maintenance > behaviour change is being maintained

6.termination > permenant change; no maintenance efforts required