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| People tend to accept vague and general personality descriptinons as uniquely applicable to themselves without realizing that the same description can be applied to just about anyone |
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it has always been this way
mode of accepting knowledge because one is comfortable with it and simply wants to hold onto it |
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someone of high authority/rank says it is true
mode of accepting knowledge because a person in position of authority claims that something is valid or true |
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it was observed to be true
relying on systematic obsevation and data collection for guidance on drawing conclusions |
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Systematic
Falsifiable
Objective
Replicable
Self-Correcting
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| interrelated set of concepts that is used to explain a body of data and make predictions about results in the future |
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| specific predictions that are derived from theories |
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| What qualifies as an experiment? |
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Definition
IV and DV
random assignment to conditions
potential confounds and how eliminated |
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| What is the essential goal of an experiment? |
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Definition
| To isolate the UV as the only source of explanation for changes in DV |
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Definition
idea-generating phase
problem-definition phase
procedure-desgin phase |
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| refine a general idea into precise question |
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| A literature review is conduced at what phase of reseach data? |
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any set of evens that may have different variables
ie: it varies |
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| take on any value within a range of values |
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| Example of a continuous variable |
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| takes on a limited number of values |
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| Example of discrete variables |
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Definition
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| Each category of a discrete variable is called... |
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nominal
ordinal
interval
ratio |
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property of identity
naming scale |
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| Tests used with nominal variables |
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| Example of ordinal measurements |
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| Tests used with Ordinal variables |
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scale indicates amount
no point of 0 |
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| Example of interval variable |
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| Tests with interval variables |
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Definition
means
standard deviations
t-test
ANOVA |
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| scale has equal intervals with true 0 |
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| What type of variable is rare in pschology? |
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Definition
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| Example of a ratio variable |
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| Tests used with ratio variables |
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| manipulated by the researcher |
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| The indpendent variable is the presumed ........ of the behavior |
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| The dependent variable is the presumed ........ produced by the independent variable |
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| non-manipulated variables |
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Definition
classification variable
IV but difficult to draw causal relationships |
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Definition
| unplanned/uncontrolled factor that can arise in an expeiment and affect outcomes |
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| Constants are used to control for what type of variables? |
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| unwanted factor that affects groups differently and makes it difficult to know what caused change in DV |
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True or Flase
An extraneous variable can change into a confounding variable |
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| What is an operational definition? |
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| a definition of a variable in terms of actual processes used to determine the presense of that variable |
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| process of assigning arbitray sympols according to predetermines set of rules |
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Definition
identifying causes of behavior
compares theories and behaviors |
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| Types of Procedure-designs |
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Definition
descrpitive vs causal
experimental vs non-experimental |
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| researcher manipulated IV and controls possible confounds |
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| experimental research allows for what type of statements? |
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Definition
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True or False
Non-experimental research allows for causal statements |
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Definition
| false, can not determine cause of changes in variables |
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| Non-experimental research |
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Definition
no manipulation of variables
no differential treatment of groups of participants |
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| example of non-experimental research methods |
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Definition
observational
correlational |
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| ways of measuring ovet behaviors |
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Definition
frequency
rate
speed
duration |
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Definition
| behaviors that anyone can observe |
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| measurements for covert behaviors |
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Definition
self report
physiological measures: HR, BP, pupil dialtion |
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Definition
| behaviors that can only be observed by the organism, not seen by others |
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Definition
| researcher observes in a natural setting as unobstructively as possible |
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| potential problems with naturalistic observation |
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Definition
Subject reactivity and observer effects
Law of small numbers
Illusoy correlations
Remebering confirming instances, but not disconfirming ones
See causality when there is non |
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Definition
| generalization about small number, hear about the rarer happenings and take this to be a generalization |
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Definition
| seeing a correlation in a set of data because of expectations, when one does not actually exist |
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True or False
The phenomenon "Hot Hand" has been proven true |
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Definition
| False, player may shoot more after a series of good shots but it there is no improved probability of it being a good shot |
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Definition
| how will you ensure that your observations are unconstructive? |
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| where will you make your observations? |
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| when to make observations? Times to make as many observations as possible |
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| how to select people to be observed? How to decide who to include? |
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| anything a person leaves behind as a part of their behavior |
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| Name-letter effect is a type of ........ reseach |
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Definition
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Definition
a person's behavior may be influenced by his or her name
possitively associate with other things that begin with the same letter as their name |
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Definition
| investigator asks questions of a respondent |
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| A single survey question is known as an... |
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Definition
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| 4 Problems with survey research |
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Definition
ethics
imperfect response rates
Response bias
participants may not know the answers
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| Ethics in survey research |
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Definition
anonymity
confidentiality |
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| imperfect response rates in survey research occur because |
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Definition
| people do not want to look different from the rest of population |
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| response bias in survey research |
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Definition
| people may lie or change answers because they are decieving themselves |
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Definition
used to write good survey questions
Keep It Simple |
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| 3 conditions for causation |
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Definition
A preceded B
A and B covary (B must occur when A does)
A must be most plausable cause for B |
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Term
| Why use a non-experimental study? |
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Definition
Some vaiables cant be manipulated
Some processes take too long
used as a means of suggesting, clarifying.. |
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| Why can't some variables be manipulated |
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Definition
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| Example of a process that takes too long, calling for a non-experimental study |
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Definition
| language development in children |
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| Correlational research methods |
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Definition
Studies the relationship between 2 or more variables
Quantifies the strength of this relationship
can be used to predict
No attempt to manipulate |
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Definition
used when a correlation exists to predict values for 1 variable from values of another variable
y=a+bX |
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True or False
Correlations determine causations |
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Definition
| False, correlations only determine if there is a relationship and the strength of that relationship |
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Term
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Definition
| when 2 variables are correlated, cant say one causes the other because there may be an unknown third variable that effects the other two variables |
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Definition
| when 2 variables are correlated, dont know which causes which |
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| example of directionality problem |
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Definition
| which came first the chicken or the egg? |
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Definition
| used on any set of data, regarless of method |
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| Examples of when to use correlational research methods |
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Definition
| class attendence predicting final grade |
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Term
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Definition
Descriptive statistic that describes a linear relationship
Ranges from -1 to +1 |
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Term
| small correlation coefficent = |
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Definition
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| medium correlation coefficient = |
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Definition
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| large correlation coeficient = |
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Definition
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| coefficient of determination (r2) |
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Definition
proportion of variance shared by 2 variables that have been correlated
Always less than r in absolute value |
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| Factors that affect correlation |
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Definition
Nonlinearity
Range restriction
Heterogeneous subsets (multiple populations)
Outliers or extreme scores |
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Definition
| relationship present but r=0 |
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| restricting range to an area will change correlation |
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Definition
| overall population has one correlation but individual subsets have opposite |
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Definition
correlational test
2 continuous variables |
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Term
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Definition
correlational test
1 dichotomous variable + 1 continuous |
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Definition
correlational test
2 dichotomous variables |
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Term
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Definition
| more than 1 predictor for a given criterion |
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| example of when to use multiple regression |
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Definition
| predicting college GPA from SAT and High school grades, motivation, and study hours |
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Definition
| used to examine 3rd variable |
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| a variable that accounts for the relationship between 2 other variables |
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Definition
| specifies when effects will hold |
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| Quasi-Experimental Methods |
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Definition
comparisons of 2 or more groups that are differentiated on a preexisting variable
measured, not manipulated |
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Definition
| non-manipulated independent variable |
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| problems with quasi-experimental methods |
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Definition
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Definition
| process of documenting the existance of behaviors of interest |
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Definition
| identifying reasons for the occurence of a behavior |
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Definition
| charactericstic of science such that any principle has to be ameable to testing to see if it is true or if it can be shown false |
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Definition
| ability to predict behaviors given knowledge of prior conditions |
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Definition
| mode of accepting knowledge based on a premise that people have agreed on, followed by a reasoned argument |
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Definition
| the mode of accepting knowledge based on empirically derived data |
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Definition
| a way of knowing that uses personal experiance as the means of deciding what is true about behavior |
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Definition
| interpertations of reseach that are based on objective results of a project |
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Definition
| when scientist can reproduce previous research study and generate the same results |
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Definition
| measurements that are not affected by personal bais and that are well-defined and specified |
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| How scientics make their work public |
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Definition
| through presentations at conferences or publishing work in journals |
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Definition
| process in which researhers submit their research for publication or presentation to other experts in field who evalutae their research |
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Definition
| domain of inquiry that has the superficial appearance of being scientific but that does not rely on critical scientific principles of objectiveity, verifiability, empericism and being public |
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Definition
the use of scientific research for non-scientific goals
negative connotations suggesting problem with the way scientific research is used |
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Definition
| guide psychologist toward highest ideals of psychology |
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Definition
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| beneficence and non maleficence |
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Definition
| acting to romote the welfare of the people a psychologist deal (beneficence) with and avoidance to harm to them (non) |
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| Fidelity and Responsibility |
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Definition
| Psychologist must act professionally |
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Definition
| psychologist should promote honest and truthful application of science |
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Definition
| psychologist must recognize the implications of their professional activity on others and stive to make the best judgements they can |
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Definition
| practice of maintaining records so that no one can identify idividuals |
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Definition
| practice of makign sure no on outside research has access to data that can be identified with a specific idividual |
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Definition
| ethical breach in which person claims credit for another persons idea or research |
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Definition
| set of legal principles adopted bu international community after nazi associates in WWII to ensure fair and ethical treatment of research participants |
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Definition
| committee that reviews research projects to make sure they are in compliance with accepted ethical guidelines |
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Definition
| participants act as if they were participatinf in a study so investigator can avoid using potential unethical stategies |
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Definition
| researcher creates an enviroment similar to one of interest in order to study behaviors in a realistic way |
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Definition
| researcher creats to disguise the actual purpose of the study when deception is considered necessary |
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Definition
| process of misinforming a participant about some aspect of a study so that the individual is not aware of the investigators intent in the project |
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Definition
| failure to provide complete info to participant in some aspect of a study so that the individual is not aware of the investigators intent in the project |
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Definition
| process of telling research participants of any deception or ruses used in the study |
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Definition
| process of elimination any negatice after effects that a participant might experiance after taking part in a project |
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Definition
| informing participant at conclusion of research project of the purpose of the study including any deception and providing oppotunity to ask questiosn |
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Definition
| theoretical approach that focuses on studies of observable behaviors rather than internal, mental processes |
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| attempts to address practical questions rather than theoretical question |
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| basic theoretical research |
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Definition
tests or expands theory
no direct application intended |
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| working definition of a complex or abstract idea that is based on how it is measured in research project |
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| idea or concept that is useful for understanding behavior, thought, and attitude but is complex and not directly measurable |
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Definition
| data collection that includes every member of a population of interest |
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| subset of a population from which a sample is actually selected |
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| answers in ways that reflect positively on themselves |
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Definition
| respondants decieve researcher in order to generat positive impresion of themselves |
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Definition
| provide general honest but overtly optimistic info of themselves to generate posititve impression |
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Definition
| in survey research, tendency to agree with assertion of a question regardless of content |
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Definition
| goal is to predict the value of 1 variable given level or another with the predictor variable often occuring before criterion variable |
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Definition
| variable that an investigator is using to predict another variable |
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Definition
dont know which way the cause goes
which of the 2 variables has causal effect on the other |
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Definition
| using knowledge of a phenomenon to predict when it will occur and being able to explain the reasons for the behavior in such a way to control that behavior |
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