Term
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Definition
| Learning through associated two stimuli. (Learning through association). The process of learning associations. |
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Term
| In Pavlov’s experiments, what was the unconditioned response? The conditioned response? The conditioned stimulus? |
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Definition
Unconditioned response (UR): in the classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US).
• In Pavlov’s experiments the food in the mouth is the unconditioned response.
Conditioned response (CR): in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
• In Pavlov’s experiments the salivation is the conditioned response.
Conditioned stimulus (CS): in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.
• In Pavlov’s experiments the “tone” from the gadget is the conditioned stimulus. |
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Term
| What is operant conditioning? Classical? Give examples. |
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Definition
Operant conditioning: forms association between behaviors and resulting events. It is a type of learning in which behavior is strengthed if followed by a reinforce or diminished if followed by a punisher.
• Examples: dog rolling over, receives a treat, behavior strengthened.
Classical conditioning: forms association between stimuli (conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus). It is a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning.
• Examples: flash of lightening signals on an impending crack of thunder, and so we start to brace ourselves when lightening flashes nearby. |
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Term
| What impact do positive reinforcers have on operant responding? Negative reinforcers? |
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Definition
Positive reinforcement: increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcement is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
• An example of a positive reinforcer is a paycheck (increases your likelihood that you will come to work).
Negative reinforcement: increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcement is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (This is not a punishment).
• An example of a negative reinforcer could be fastening your seat belt (takes away the car beeps). |
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Term
| What is a fixed-ratio schedule? A variable ratio? A fixed-interval? Give examples of each. |
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Definition
Fixed-Ratio schedule: In operant conditioning, reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
• For example, like piecework pay.
Variable Ratio schedule: In operant conditioning, reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. Hard to distinguish because of unpredictability.
• For example, behaviors like gambling and fishing.
Fixed-Interval: In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
• For example, preparing for an exam only when the exam draws close. People checking more frequently for the mail as the delivery time approaches. |
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Term
| What is observational learning? |
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Definition
| Observational Learning is when you learn be imitating someone else. Learning by observing others. |
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Term
| What did the Bobo doll studies illustrate the importance of? |
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Definition
Bandura’s Bobo Doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments.
• The experiments indicate observational learning. The Bobo doll studies illustrate the importance of how, by looking, we learn to anticipate behaviors consequences in situations like those we are observing. We are especially likely to imitate people we perceive as similar to ourselves, as successful, or as admirable. |
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Term
| What is memory important for? |
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Definition
| Memory is important for storing and retrieving information this is how we learn to do things and how we know what and who and where. Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time. it is our ability to store and retrieve information. |
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Term
| What is encoding? Retrieval? |
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Definition
Encoding is the processing of information into the memory system- for example, by extracting meaning.
Retrieval is the process of getting information out of memory storage. |
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Term
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Definition
Chunking is organizing items into familiar, manageable unit; often occurs automatically.
• Acronyms are another way to chunk information and remember it. |
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Term
| What is rehearsal? Give an example. |
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Definition
Rehearsal is effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition. The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.
• Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ.
• The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on day 1, the fewer repetitions were required to relearn them on Day 2.
• Ebbinghaus tested himself by rapidly reading aloud, eight times over, a list of random letters clumped together, after learning such a list, he could recall a few of the syllables. |
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Term
| What is the spacing effect? Give example. |
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Definition
Spacing effect: The tendency for disturbed study or practice to yield better long-term retention that is achieved through mass study or practice.
• Example: We retain information better when our rehearsal is disturbed over time (as when learning classmates names). When your recall is better for first and last items, but poor for middle items on a list. An example is a grocery list.
Module 26 |
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Term
| What is iconic memory? Echoic? |
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Definition
Iconic memory: A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photogenic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.
Echoic memory: a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds. |
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Term
| What are retrieval cues? Be able to identify examples. |
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Definition
Retrieval cues: anchor points you can use to access the target information when you want to retrieve it later.
• Examples: tastes, smells, sights |
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Term
| What is retrieval failure? Identify examples. |
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Definition
Retrieval failure: is when although the information is retained in the memory store it cannot be accessed. You know you know the answer but you can’t get it out.
• The tip of your tongue is an example |
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Term
| What is retroactive interference? |
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Definition
| Retroactive interference: the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. |
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Term
| What is insight? Identify example. |
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Definition
Insight: a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions.
• Examples: When you are puzzled over a problem, then suddenly the pieces fall together and we perceive a solution. |
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Term
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Definition
| Algorithm: a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier- but also more error prone-use of heuristics. |
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Term
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Definition
| Prototype: a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin). |
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Term
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Definition
| A phoneme is the most basic unit of speech. In a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit. |
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Term
| What are the stages of speech development? When does telegraphic speech occur? Which is the earliest? |
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Definition
Stages of speech development:
1. Babbling Stage: beginning about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.
2. One- Word Stage: the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements.
3. Two-Word Stage: beginning about age 2, the stages in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements.
4. Telegraphic Stage: early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram – “go car” – using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting auxiliary words; occurs during the two word stage. |
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Term
| What is the language acquisition device? |
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Definition
| Language Acquisition Device: is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive, produce and use words to understand and communicate. |
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Term
| What is spearman’s g factor? |
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Definition
| Spearman’s G Factor: is a general intelligence theory. A general intelligence factor that according to Spearman and other underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test. |
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Term
| What is factor analysis? How is it used with intelligence scores? |
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Definition
| Factor analysis: is a complicated statistical procedure that is used to identify clusters of things that are related to each other. Used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie ones total score. |
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Term
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Definition
Validity: is the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to measure.
Content Validity: the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest (such as a driving test that samples driving tasks) |
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Term
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Definition
| Reliability: the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, an alternate form of the test, or retesting. |
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Term
| What are aptitude tests? Achievement tests? |
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Definition
Aptitude tests: a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.
Achievement tests: a test designed to assess what a person has learned. |
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Term
| How will ethnic minorities perform on a test if they believe the test is biased against them? |
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Definition
This is stereotype threat, if you know the test is biased against you, you are more likely to perform poorly on it.
Ethnic minorities will wear away their performance both on aptitude test and in school if they believe that the tests are biased against them. Over time, such students may “misidentify” with school achievement. They may detach which might explain why minority students end to underachieve relative to their abilities. |
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Term
| On what kinds of tasks will males outperform females? |
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Definition
| Males will outperform females in underachievement; special education classes. Although males are not said to be as good at girls are with spelling, verbal ability, non-verbal memory and sensation; males have an edge in the annual physics and computer sciences advanced placement exams. |
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Term
| What determines intelligence? |
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Definition
| Genetic and environmental influences determine intelligence. |
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Term
| In what way are intelligence tests biased? |
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Definition
Ways Intelligence Tests are biased:
• Aptitude tests are necessarily biased in the sense that they are sensitive to performance differences caused by cultural differences.
• However, aptitude tests are not biased in the sense that they accurately predict performance of one group over the other. |
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Term
| _ is a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it toward a goal. |
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Definition
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Term
| _ a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned through a species and is unlearned. |
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Definition
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Term
| _ a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned through a species and is unlearned. |
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Definition
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Term
| what are maslow's needs in order? |
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Definition
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and hen psychological needs become active.
• Self-actualization needs: need to live up to one’s fullest and unique potential.
• Esteem needs: need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others.
• Belongingness and love needs: need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation.
• Safety needs: need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable.
• Physiological needs: need to satisfy hunger and thirst |
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Term
| What cultural value leads people to be vulnerable to anorexia? |
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Definition
The cultural values which lead people to be vulnerable to anorexia are body figure; mostly weigh conscious cultures and mostly in women. This can vary across cultures:
• In India: women students’ rate their ideals as close to their actual shape.
• In Africa: where thinness can signal poverty, AIDS and hunger, and the prosperous are plump- bigger is better.
• Western Cultures: the rise in eating disorders over the last 50 years had coincided with a dramatic increase in women having a poor body image.
Those vulnerable to eating disorders are those who must idealize thinness and have the greatest body dissatisfaction. Those people are most often women. |
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Term
| _ is characterized by a normal-weight person (usually adolescent women) losing weight continuously and yet feeling overweight. |
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Definition
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Term
| _ is a disorder characterized by episodes of over eating, usually of high calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting or excessive exercise. |
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Definition
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Term
| _ a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one’s skills. |
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Definition
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Term
| What causes interviewers to judge applicants more favorably? |
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Definition
| Measure of importance as objectively as possible is the best cause for interviewers to judge applicants more favorably. |
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Term
| _ : interview process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on established scales. |
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Definition
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Term
_ interviewers often overrate their discernment; four factors explain this gap between interviewers intuition and the resulting reality:
1. Intention vs. Habits: Intentions matter but long lasting habits matter more.
2. Successful employees: interviewers are more likely to talk about those employees that turned out successful.
3. Presumptions about Candidates: interviewers presume (wrongly) what we see (candidate) is what we get.
4. Preconceptions: interviewer prior knowledge about the candidate may affect his or her judgment. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Occurs when one’s overall evaluation of an employee, or of a trait such as their friendliness, biases ratings of their specific work-related behaviors, such as their reliability. Everything is good once you know one good thing about them.
• Example: “Johnny heard something positive about his applicant, therefore he thinks positive things about them in the future.” |
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Term
| What are designed to improve performance appraisals? |
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Definition
Appraising performance results in two things:
1. Employee retention
2. Reinforcement of employee for better performance |
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Term
| What do performance appraisal scales inhibit? |
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Definition
| The scales in the checklists that are a part of performance appraisals, severity errors are a part of them. |
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Term
| _ is the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological response to emotion-arousing stimuli. |
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Definition
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Term
| _ is the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion. |
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Definition
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Term
| How does physiological arousal impact performance on different types of tasks? |
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Definition
Arousal in short spurts is adaptive. We perform better under moderate arousal, however optimal performance varies with task differently.
Prolonged arousal taxes the body. But in many situations arousal is adaptive. Too little arousal (say sleepiness) can be as disruptive as extremely high levels. When you're taking an exam it pays to be moderately aroused – alert but not trembling with nervousness.
Although we usually perform best when we feel moderately aroused, the level of arousal for optimal performance varies for different tasks. With easy or well-learned tasks, peak performance comes with relatively high arousal. With more difficult or unrehearsed tasks, optimal arousal is somewhat lower. |
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Term
| _ Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed yet another theory which suggested that our physiology and our cognitions create emotions. Emotions have two factors – physical arousal and cognitive label. |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the universal way of expressing emotion? |
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Definition
| The universal way of expressing emotion is through body language or the facial expressions. |
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Term
| what is the impact of culture on emotional expression? |
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Definition
| Culturally diverse people generally use the same facial expressions. |
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Term
| _ is when you behave/act a certain way, it can reflect upon the way you feel and how your mood is? |
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Definition
| Behavior feedback phenomenon: |
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Term
| _ is a subtle yet detectable way of emotions changing, depending on how your facial expressions are. You can change from one mood to the next simply by changing a frown into a smile, etc. |
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Definition
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Term
| What 2 dimensions are emotions described on? |
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Definition
The two dimensions that emotions are described on are arousal (low vs. high) and valence (positive vs. negative).
Emotions are either positive or negative. |
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Term
| _ is the perception that on is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself. |
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Definition
| Relative deprivation theory |
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Term
| What did Sue Mineka show about how fear developed? |
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Definition
Biologically prepared to fear certain things like spiders.
Susan Mineka sought to explain why nearly all moneys reared in the wild fear snakes, yet lab-reared monkeys do not. Surely, most wild moneys actually suffer snakebites. Do they learn their fear through observation? Mineka experimented with 6 monkeys reared in the wild (all strongly fearful of snakes) and their lab reared offspring (non of which feared snakes). After repeatedly observing their parents or peers refusing to reach for food in the presence of a snake, the younger monkeys developed a similar strong fear of snakes. When retested 3 months later, their fear persisted suggesting that our fears may reflect not only our own past traumas but also the fears we learn from our parents and friends. |
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Term
| What kinds of things are people biologically predisposed to fear? |
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Definition
Spiders.
Humans are biologically predisposed to fear snakes, spiders and cliffs – fears that probably helped our ancestors survive. |
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Term
| _ is our tendency to from judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience. |
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Definition
| Adaptation – level phenomenon: |
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Term
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Definition
| _ are subjective evaluations of different qualities in the social world. |
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Term
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Definition
| _ can vary in their stability and resistance to change. |
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Term
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Definition
| _ help us understand how people react to new things. |
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Term
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Definition
| _ are predictive of behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| _ are attitudes that help us make sense of the world and summarize our experiences. |
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Term
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Definition
| _ is desire to create and maintain pasitive self-image by matching attitudes with those we find admirable or engaging in behaviors relevant to those attitues. |
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Term
explict - "outside"
implicit - "Inside" |
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Definition
| what two categories can attitudes be broken into. |
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Term
| _ are consciously accessible, easier to control, easier to report, typically strongly influenced by social desirability, and poor at predicting behavior. |
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Definition
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Term
| attitudes are measured on a number scale. |
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Definition
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Term
| rating along a scale between two opposites. |
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Definition
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Term
| measures the degree to which an attitude is held with items ranging from minor to extreme. |
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Definition
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Term
| _ are unconscious associations, hard to control, often acquired very early and over repeated exposure, hard to report, may not be socially desirable, often negative, much more predictive. |
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Definition
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Term
| a stimulus that evokes a response without training. |
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Definition
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Term
| a stimulus that comes to signal the unconditiones stimulus. |
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Definition
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Term
| classical conditioning in which the stimuli are outside of conscious awareness. mostly discredited as an effective method of experimental conditioning. |
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Definition
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Term
| just encountering something cna improve our attitude towards it. often strongest when we dont remember encountering in, i.e. subliminal exposure. |
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Definition
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Term
Responses that lead to positive outcomes are repeated, those that lead to negative outcomes are avoided
Often called Operant Conditioning
Pioneered by BF Skinner and other Behaviorists
Example: As children, we are often rewarded for agreeing with our parents views, even if we don’t understand them |
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Definition
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Term
| a negative consequence that should reduce the behavior that led to it |
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Definition
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Term
| addition of something unpleasent. |
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Definition
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Term
| removal of something pleasent. |
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Definition
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Term
| a positive consequence that should increase the behavior that led to it |
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Definition
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Term
| addition of something pleasant |
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Definition
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Term
| removal of something unpleasant |
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Definition
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Term
| performing the behavior will ALWAYS result in the consequence |
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Definition
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Term
| performing the behavior will SOMETIMES and UNPREDICTABLY result in consequence |
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Definition
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Term
Individuals pick up a new form of behavior from observing others
Example: Seeing people smoke on TV may improve our attitude towards it
Most effective when the observed individual is seen as a role model or peer |
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Definition
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Term
Comparing our own behavior to others to determine if our attitudes are appropriate.
-Can occur even if we have no attitude before regarding something.
-Example: Hearing a peer express disgust for a product will give us a negative attitude even if we have never encountered the product. |
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Definition
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Term
| people we consider to be like ourselves or to have opinions we value |
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Definition
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Term
| when we think others have different attitudes when they actually feel the same way we do |
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Definition
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Term
A combination of three factors determine accessibility
Extremity –how important that attitude is to our self concept
Certainty – how well we know our attitude and feel it is correct
Personal Experience – how familiar the attitude object is
Accessibility - how easily we can access the attitude |
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Definition
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Term
| how important that attitude is to our self concept |
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Definition
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Term
| how well we know our attitude and feel it is correct |
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Definition
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Term
| how familiar the attitude object is |
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Definition
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Term
| how easily we can access the attitude |
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Definition
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Term
How strongly we feel about the topic
Vested Interest – how relevant the attitude is to our self concept
Attitudes with high extremity are more likely to be
Thought about carefully
Resistant to change
Accessible guides for behavior |
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Definition
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Term
| how relevant the attitude is to our self concept |
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Definition
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Term
A combination of Clarity and Correctness
Clarity – how well we know our attitude
Correctness – how much we believe our attitude is the right one
High clarity and certainty increase reliability
Listeners tend to accept certainty as accuracy |
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Definition
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Term
| how well we know our attitude |
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Definition
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Term
| how much we believe our attitude is the right one |
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Definition
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Term
We have stronger attitudes for things we have first-hand knowledge of
Biases in how we process experience can make these very resistant to change |
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Definition
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Term
Behavior can come be influenced through attitude in either:
Reasoned thought
Spontaneous behavior and reactions |
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Definition
| Attitudes guiding Behavior |
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Term
| we consider all the consequences and outcomes then make a rational decision |
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Definition
| Theory of reasoned action |
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Term
| in addition to the consequences, we consider our ability to perform the behavior then form an Implementation Plan |
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Definition
| Theory of planned behavior |
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