Schiz & Mood 

Davidson and Neale (2001)

& Dopamine Hypothesis

Suggests an excess of dopamine is related to Schizophrenic symptoms (Davidson and Neale 2001)

Data used

- Parkinsons patients treated with L-Dopa will experience symptoms of Schizophrenia

- Post Mortems show large volumes of dopamine in the brain

- Chlorpromazine which reduces dopamine, reduces Schiz symptoms (No Causal relationship)

- Side effects include tremors (A symptom of parkinsons) - LINK 

EVAL - Abnormal Family Circumstances give rise to high levels of dopamine which can trigger symptoms (Lloyd et al 1984) 

Overall evidence is inconclusive (Lavender 2000)

Heston (1960)

Kety (1988)

Chromosome 8 PPP3CC - Invovled in Schiz

- Heston (1960) 

47 adopted children whose mothers had schiz compared with 47 children with no schiz history

16% of those whose mothers had schiz had schiz themselves

-Kety (1988)

Adopted Schiz patients - 14% of biological parents had schiz

                                    2.7% Adopted parents

Gottleman and Shields (1990)

Suddath et al (1990)

Brain abnormalities include: Atrophy & Shrinking of Hippocampus (Haphazard Distribution of neurones), Enlarged Lateral Ventricles. Wernickes and Brocas area active in Hallucinations. Corpus Callosum - Gender dependent thickening is reversed in schizophrenia.

Gottleman and Shields (1990)

Meta analysis of 5 studies (average concordance rates)

MZ 46%

DZ 14%

Suggests a major biological component.

Suddath et al (1990)

Investigated disconcordant twin pairs for brain abnormalities

14/15 twin pairs had a smaller bilateral hippocampus as well as enlarged lateral ventricles

Meltzer (1999)

Loebel et al (1992)

Meltzer (1999)

68% of patients with stubborn symptoms respond within 12 months to Clozapine.

Loebel et al (1992)

 Found 16% did not recover after 12 months of treatment Clozapine.

Rosenhan (1973) * 2

Anti-psychiatry movement, Labelling theory & Family Dysfunction. (Thomas Szasz)

First study - Attempted to admit himself and 8 other "Pseudo patients" into psychiatric hospitals complaining of hearing the word "Thud" in their head. Then instructed to act normally once admitted.

- Average stay of 19 days, Described as endulging in "Writing behaviour", other hospital admittents questioned the Pseudo-patients as to why they were doing journalism within the Hospital and complained of their obvious misplacement.

Second study - Notified hospitals that he would be attempting to get more pseudo patients into the hospitals.

The hospitals recorded 41 "Pseudo patients"

Rosenhan revealed that he hadn't sent any Pseudo patients, Concluding that diagnosis was a difficult process that the hospitals could not complete. Practitioners will look for normal behaviour even in those who behave abnormally

Hogarty et al (1986)

Kuipers et al (1997)

Hogarty et al (1986) 

Patients who recieve meds (40%)

Patients who recieve Meds & Therapy (20%)

Patients who revieve Meds & Therapy & Family Therapy (0%) (Relapse rates)

Kuipers et al (1997)

Cog therapy has been shown to reduce the severity of delusions by 40%

^ Not sure how they worked that one out but OK

Schildkraut (1995)

Kety (1995)

Bunny et al (1972)

Schildkraut (1995)

High levels of Noradrenaline & Serotonin lead to Mania

Kety and Bunny - Fluctuations in these neurotransmitters lead to changes in mood because Serotonin regulates Noradrenaline.

Teuting et al (1991)

Urine samples analysed

Depressed patients have less metabolites in their urine.

This means a lower level of neurotransmitter 

HOWEVER - No cause and effect relationship

                - Not all depressed patients exhibit this symptom

                 - It's a symptom not a cause. - Why do they have less neurotransmitters?

McGuffin (1996)

Price (1966)

McGuffin - 117 same sex twins used (Unipolar)

MZ - 46% 

DZ - 20%

Price - "Large sample size" - Quote Dr Jolly (Bipolar)

Raised together MZ - 68%

Raised Apart     MZ - 67%

                       DZ - 23%

Coffey et al (1993)

Limbic system is regulated by the frontal Lobe -> implicated in depressive episodes

Coffey et al (1993)

Frontal Lobe volume is smaller in those with depression

Thase and Kupfer (1996)

- MAOIs - Monoamie oxidase inhibitors, Bind to this enzyme stopping it from being able to break down the neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft therefore increases amount taken up by subsequent neurone. Therefore mood is elevated.

- SSRIs - Selective Serotonin reputake inhibitors, Blocks the transporter molecule, this increases the production of neurotransmitter as all the he neurotransmitter is still in the synaptic cleft. This overall increases the level of neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft.

Thase and Kupfer (1996)

Meta analysis - Anti depressants vs Placebos

Antidepressants reduced acute depression in 50-70% of cases.

EVAL - CBT increases Neurotransmitter and tackles the environmental stressor.

Cognition and Law

Cohen (1989)

Three Process involved in face recog.

Face Recognition

Face Identification

Face Recall

Yin (1969)

Bruce and Valentine (1986)

Shepherd Davies and Ellis (1951)

Feature Analysis Bottom Up processing - All of the individual features are processed then put together to form a face.

Yin (1969) - Inverted Faces take longer to recognise - Favours Holistic Forms

Bruce and Valentine (1996) - Scrambled Faces take longer to recognise - Favours Holistic forms

Shepherd Davies and Ellis (1951) - Main features (Hair, Mouth Nose eyebrows) used in recognition - Supports Feature Analysis.

Young et al (1985) 

Holistic forms - Top - Down processing Using the whole face as one peice of information and identifying certain features

Young et al (1985) - Volunteers kept a diary when they had problems recognisesing a face.

1008 cases reported

233 Recog with no semantic knowledge

190 semnatic knowledge with no name

0 a name without semantic knowledge

Supports the Bruce and Young Holistic forms model

Frowd et al (2005) - KEY STUDY

Kapparais (1997)

Tanaka and Farah (1993)

Frowd et al (2005)  Compared 5 composite systems (E-FIT, PROfit, Sketch, Photo-FIT and Evo-FIT)

PROfit and E-FIT were superior.

^ Not using contextual information - ECOG VALIDITY

Kapparais (1997) Studied composite systems in australia, 19% of cases where used a charge was given.

-In real life composite systems work.

Tanaka and Farah (1993)

Found it very difficult to recognise individual features -> Facial composite systems are not useful (Based on feature analysis)

Prosopagnosia

Capgras syndrome

Prosopagnosia - Have a GSR (Galvanic Skin Response) but cannot recognise faces cognitively.

-Suggests Feature Analysis is far too simple.

Capgras Syndrome - No GSR, but can cognitively recognise faces

- Suggests both Feature Analysis and Holistic forms are too simple (No accound for emotional recognition).

Steblay (1997) KEY STUDY

Dunning and Stem (1994)

System Variables - Pre line-up instructions 

                          - Physical characteristics of distractors

Estimator Variables - Event Conditions

                             - Weapon Focus

Steblay (1997) In realistic situations, when EW are told the suspect may not be present misidentification dropped 40%

Dunning and Stem (1994) - Relative Judgement < Absolute Judgement

Valentine (2003) - Instigated a Identification procedure reform.

Dunning and Peretta (2002)

Valentine (2003) - In previous procedures

Correct Identification - 40%

Failure to make - 40%

Misidentification - 20% 

Dunning and Peretta (2002)

EWs who make instant decisions are right 90% of the time, those who linger 50% of the time.

Stereotyping & Schemas

Bartlett "War of the Ghosts"

Duncan (1976)

Allport and Newman (1947)

Bartlett "War of the Ghosts" - British Ps who read a Native American story, often made their own judgments about what had occured when asked to recall, Showing a cultural barrier in memory

 Duncan (1976) - Ps watched an argument between a Black and White man

-When the White man pushed the Black man "Playful"

-When the Black man pushed the White man "Violent"

Allport and Newman (1947) - Ps were shown a picture of a white man threatening a Black man.

In recall Ps recalled it the other way round "Razer Migration effect"

Post Event Contamination

Loftus (1974) * 2

Memory can be distorted/influenced by questioning procedures prior to the event, Implications in EW collaboration.

Ideas about Reconstructive memory, BASIC EVENTS ------> Logical reconstruction ------> Memory.

Loftus 1 - Ps shows two cars having an accident, 

Ps asked what time they were travelling when the cars _______ ?

Contacted - Lowest estimate 

Hit 

Smashed - highest estimate - Reported broken glass when their wasn't any.

Loftus 2 - Ps shown a car stopped at a stop sign 

Ps could be influenced into "Remembering" a Yield sign instead when it was mentioned.

 his is the thought process "I saw two cars have an accident" ---> "Smashed" ---> There must've been broken glass if they "Smashed" ---> I remember broken glass. 

However, This could be duies to the participant trying to fufill the experiment too hard, "Social desirability bias" 

Emotion & Stress

Clifford and Scott (1978)

Yuille and Cutshall (1986)

Yerkes Dodson Curve, Defence mechanisms, Weapon Focus.

Clifford and Scott (1978) - Violent attack vs Less violent attack

- Less violent attack remembered less well.

Yuille and Cutshall (1986) - A thief in vancouver was witnessed by 21 people shooting a shopkeeper.

-Interviewed 5 months later, Interviewers attempted to insert misleading questions to change the witnesses memories, However extrememly accurate recall was exhibited. "No weapon Focus"

However the witnesses accounts would have already been confirmed by police, this level of confidence would prevent contamination from occuring.

Cognitive Interview

Geiselman et al (1985)

-Reinstating the context

-Different perspectives

-Different order

- Free recall in an attempt to encourage ALL data.

False Memory Debate

Deese (1959)

Case of Jane Doe

FMS - False Memory Syndrome, Where an entired identity and life is affected by a false memory 

Recovered memories assume freuds theories about repression are correct.

Deese (1959) - Showed semantic memory could be reliably created in humans, Word lists remembered then recalled using word lists, Ps "remembered" words that were related, although not in original word list, only in the recall aid sheet.

Case of Jane doe - Abuse Reported ---> Repressed ----> Recovered, Little information, involved in court with Loftus from claims of false memory... LOL

Gary et al (1996) - Implication of imagination onm memory.

Sexual Healing Journal (1991) 

Gary et al (1996) - LEI (Life events inventory) 

Gave Ps a script of an event they had said DID not occur in the LEI, and asked them to imagine it had happened.

When they retook the LEI, they had a higher confidence that the event had occured compared to a controll group who had imagined nothing.

Sexual Healing Journal (1991) - Reader advised to spend time imaging that they had been sexually abuse without worrying about accuracy.

^ Is that really a good idea? LOL

Loftus - This is a super cool study, poorly documented and relatively unethical, however it would've occured without the psychological research.

High levels of support for False Memory.

Basically, certain regiments of the US army have to undergo POW (prisoner of war) Training, This entaled the exposure to the kind of techniques an enemy might use to obtain information. 

Loftus attempted to make the men exposed to this believe the man who was torturing them was completely different to the man they actually saw.

Man they saw was a bearded short man,

Man Loftus implanted was a Tall bald man.

I don't know exact results but it's pretty interesting.

Cognitive Development 

Bower and Wishart (1976)

Sensorimotor Stage Birth - 2 yrs

Bower and Wishart (1976)

- Reaching task (Infa red lights)

Piaget underestimated infant abilities.

Piaget and Inhelder (1956) - KEY STUDY

Hughes and Donaldson (1979)

Piaget used a Qualitative data method, this is because he believed this gave a greater insight into what the child was actually thinking when completing these tasks.

Pre-Operational stage 2yrs - 7yrs

Egocentrism

Piaget and Inhelder (1956) - Three Mountains Task

Hughes and Donaldson - Boy and the policemen

- Piaget underestimated childrens ability to decentre.

Conservation - "Rows of sweets"

Rose and Blank (1974)

McGarrigle and Donaldson (1974)

Pre-Operational stage 2yrs - 7yrs

Rose and Blank (1974) - Asking a question twice may cause a child to change their answer.

McGarrigle and Donaldson - Naughty Teddy

- Piaget underestimated Childrens ability to conserve number.

Class Inclusion 

Piaget (1952) - KEY STUDY

McGarrigle (1978)

Pre-Operational Stage 2yrs - 7yrs

Piaget (1952) - White and Wooden Beads - More White beads or Wooden ones?

McGarrigle - Sleeping cows,

Piagets methodology is poor, the wording of the question affects childrens responses.

Conservation 

Piaget (1952) - KEY STUDY

Concrete Operations 7yrs - 12 yrs

Third Eye Task

Formal Operations 12yrs +

- Abstract thought, Hypothetico-deductive thought, systematic reasoning.

Piaget (1952) - Different sized containers and volumes

- The child has now decentred and is able to use the concept of reversibility.

Third Eye Task - Children capable of Hypothetical reasoning when asked where they would put a third eye will make practical choices whereas those not in the formal operations stage will make impractical choices eg, On their forhead.

Vygotsky

- Wood et al (1976)

Effective scaffolding 

Recuritment and maintaining the learners interest in a task

Simplification of the task

Marking critical features that will help soloution

demonstration of the task. 

Baillargeon et al (1985)

Gratch et al (1974)

Baillargeon et al (1985)

- Cube appeared to be squashed by screen, infants pay more attention this this event that controll events, this suggests the infant recognise the even as impossible/absurd. They do understand object permanence.#

Gratch et al (1974) 

-Infants have a poor memory not a poor understanding. Success in A not B errors when delay is less than 1 second.