Term
| The DSM-5 identifies several types of neurodevelopmental disorders, including: |
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Definition
- intellectual disabilities
- communication disorders
- autistic spectrum disorders (ASD)
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
- specific learning disorder
- motor disorder
- other neurodevelopmental disorders. |
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Term
| What are developmental disorders? |
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Definition
| Developmental disorders are those usually diagnosed in infancy, childhood, or adolescence, and affect cognitive, social, and emotional functioning. They may change over time, but generally persist into adulthood (not just a childhood disorder). |
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Term
| There are some special factors associated with treating children and adolescents, such as: |
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Definition
- inability of the child to seek assistance
- vulnerabilities that place children at particular risk
- parents may need to be treated as well as the child
- the need to use parents as agents of change
- problems when children require placement away from their family.
A number of potential causal factors have been considered for the disorders of childhood and adolescence. Although genetic predisposition appears to be important in several disorders, parental psychopathology, family disruption, and stressful circumstances (such as parental death or desertion, and child abuse) can be important causal influences. Recent research underscores the importance of multiple risk factors in the development of psychopathology. |
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Term
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Definition
Autism spectrum disorder is a pervasive neurodevelopmental disorder that is severely disabling and difficult to understand and treat. It is characterised by a wide range of problems such as:
social deficits
absence of speech
self-stimulation
impaired intellectual ability
pre-occupation with maintaining sameness.
The precise cause of autism is unknown, but most investigators agree that a fundamental disturbance of the central nervous system is involved. Unfortunately, treatment does not result in normal behaviour. However, new instructional and behaviour modification techniques can improve the functional abilities of less severely autistic children. |
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Term
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Definition
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the more frequent behaviour problems of childhood. In this disorder, the child shows impulsive, overactive behaviour that interferes with his or her ability to accomplish tasks. Symptom onset is generally in early childhood, or even in infancy, with diagnosis generally occurring within 3-4 years of starting school. It is not clear to what extent the disorder results from environmental or biological factors.
Treatment involves medication (such as Ritalin, Pemoline, and Strattera), behaviour therapy, and family therapy. Although symptoms generally diminish with age (at least to some degree), 60-70% of children with ADHD have ongoing difficulties as adults. |
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Term
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Definition
Anxiety disorder in children and adolescents involves unrealistic fears, oversensitivity, self-consciousness, nightmares, and chronic anxiety. The most common anxiety disorder in children is separation anxiety disorder, characterised by excessive anxiety about separation from major attachment figures like the mother, and from familiar home surroundings.
A likely cause of childhood anxiety disorder is a pattern of early family relationships that generates anxiety, and prevents the child from developing more adaptive coping skills. Common treatments are psychopharmacological and behavioural. |
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Term
| Depression and bipolar disorder in children and adolescents |
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Definition
Depression in childhood is relatively common. Rather than depressed mood, children may be irritable. Aetiological factors include biological and learning factors, exposure to trauma, and parental negative emotion or behaviour.
Children with bipolar disorder show extreme mood swings and aggressive, irritable behaviour. Diagnosis of the disorder is on the rise for both children and adolescents.
The use of antidepressant medication for depression or bipolar disorder in children is controversial, as the research on efficacy is both limited and contradictory. Of most importance when treating children and adolescents is to provide a supportive emotional environment where adaptive coping strategies can be learnt, and emotions can be expressed. Research suggests that cognitive-behavioural therapy reduces symptoms associated with depression and bipolar disorder for children and adolescents. |
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Term
| Oppositional defiant (ODD)/conduct disorder (CD) |
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Definition
In oppositional defiant disorder children repeatedly engage in negativistic, defiant, disobedient, and hostile behaviour toward authority figures that persists for at least six months. Many children will progress to conduct disorder. In conduct disorder, a child engages in persistent, repetitive violation of rules and a disregard for the rights of others. There are three subtypes of the disorder:
angry/irritable mood
argumentative/defiant behaviour
vindictiveness.
A number of potential causes of conduct disorder or delinquent behaviour have been determined, including biological factors, personal pathology, family patterns and peer relationships. Treatments that encourage family cohesiveness and behavioural techniques are effective, while punitive treatments are not. |
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Term
| Intellectual disability and learning disorders |
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Definition
Intellectual disability is characterised by deficits in general mental abilities, such as reasoning, problem solving, planning, abstract thinking, judgment, academic learning, and learning from experience (APA, 2013, p. 31). There are four levels of severity:
mild: IQ between 50-55 and 70 (approx 85% of all ID)
moderate: IQ between 35-40 and 50-55 (approx 10% of all ID)
severe: IQ between 20-25 and 35-40 (approx 3-4% of all ID)
profound: IQ below 20-25 (approx 1-2% of all ID).
Biological causes include:
genetic-chromosomal
infections and toxic agents
trauma
ionising radiation
malnutrition.
Some organic retardation syndromes are Down syndrome, phenylketonuria, and cranial abnormalities such as macrocephaly, microcephaly, and hydrocephaly.
Current treatment involves institutionalisation (usually as a last resort), and education and inclusion programming ('mainstreaming' involves attending regular classes for much of the day). |
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Term
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Definition
| Learning disorders occur in children, but can persist over their life-span, and can limit future development and psychological growth. To be diagnosed with a disorder children must exhibit a clear impairment in school performance or daily living activities, not due to an intellectual disability or a pervasive developmental disorder. A common learning disorder is dyslexia, in which children have problems with word recognition and reading comprehension. It is not clear what the causal factors of learning disorders are, but it is possible that there is a subtle impairment in the central nervous system. |
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Term
| The major concerns associated with the use of psychoactive medication to treat ADHD fall into five major categories: |
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Definition
- over-diagnosis
- medication use will lead to drug abuse or can be used for recreation
- sense of loss of control
- side effects
- mentality of cure/only option. |
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Term
What complicates the diagnosis of maladaptive behaviour in childhood?
Behaviour that is problematic for a child of one age is normal behavior for a child of a different age.
The dividing line between childhood and adolescence has been arbitrarily drawn.
Most psychological disorders in the young have an identifiable environmental cause.
Drugs are not effective in treating the disorders that are most commonly seen in children. |
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Definition
| Behaviour that is problematic for a child of one age is normal behavior for a child of a different age. |
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Term
Children with ADHD that have symptoms of hyperactivity:
are usually well liked by their peers because they are always active.
are usually well liked by their peers because they become 'class clowns.'
are usually viewed negatively by their peers because of their behaviours.
are usually viewed negatively by their peers because they are socially withdrawn. |
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Definition
| are usually viewed negatively by their peers because of their behaviours. |
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Term
George is in second grade and is having trouble. He frequently is out of his seat, looking at the work of other students and annoying them by making comments. He interrupts the teacher, blurts out answers before she finishes the question, and usually needs directions repeated multiple times. At home, his mother says he is always 'on the go.' The most likely diagnosis for George is:
conduct disorder.
oppositional defiant disorder.
separation anxiety disorder.
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. |
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Definition
| attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. |
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Term
The evidence suggests that medications for ADHD:
work well for the short-term but show little long-term effect.
work well for both the short- and long-term.
really don't work at all—what is seen is due to the placebo effect.
only work for children who have had the diagnosis at least two years. |
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Definition
| work well for the short-term but show little long-term effect. |
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Term
Which of the following is a possible explanation for the seeming lack of emotion in autistic children?
They have no emotions.
They lack social understanding.
Neurological impairment—they can feel but not show emotions.
Immaturity—they will show more as they get older. |
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Definition
| They lack social understanding. |
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Term
The hallmark symptom of autism is:
lack of language.
lack of interest in other people.
intellectual disability.
strange behaviors. |
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Definition
| lack of interest in other people. |
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Term
Drug treatment for autistic disorder has been found to be:
of some value in reducing aggressive behaviors.
extremely beneficial when neuroleptics like haloperidol are used.
contraindicated since they tend to make the children withdraw even further.
extremely beneficial when a hormone replacement drug is used. |
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Definition
| of some value in reducing aggressive behaviors. |
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Term
A learning disability usually is identified:
because teachers and school administrators are on the watch for the signs.
because a child shows a disparity between his or her actual academic achievement and expected academic achievement.
because a child begins to show significant emotional problems, fails, and begins to hate school.
because the child has been doing very well in school for several years and then suddenly starts failing. |
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Definition
| because a child shows a disparity between his or her actual academic achievement and expected academic achievement. |
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Term
Jenny has an IQ in the average range. However, at school she is doing very poorly. She has consistently scored at two or more grade levels below the grade she is actually in. From this, a diagnostician would hypothesise that Jenny:
most likely has an anxiety disorder.
most likely does not have a learning disability because her IQ is only average.
most likely has a learning disability.
most likely has intellectual disability. |
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Definition
| most likely has a learning disability. |
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Term
By definition, learning disorders:
are not due to a physical defect.
reflect a developmental delay.
are present before the age of 5.
cannot be treated medically. |
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Definition
| reflect a developmental delay. |
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Term
| What are the special vulnerabilities in young children that contribute to the development of psychological problems? |
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Definition
| Children have a more simplistic view of life than adults. They have less self-understanding and cannot grasp as adults can what situations require of them nor what resources they have to cope with those situations. Therefore, immediate threats are more likely to seem overwhelming to children. Given this limited perspective, children use unrealistic ideas to explain events. Children are also more dependent on other people than adults, and while this may provide support, it also makes them vulnerable to rejection and inadequate or inappropriate modeling of behaviour. |
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Term
| Disorders of Childhood and Adolescence (Neurodevelopmental Disorders) |
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Definition
| Approximately half (49.5 percent) of children and adoles- cents meet criteria for at least one mental disorder by the age of 18 years (see Fig- ure 15.1) (Merikangas et al., 2010). Anxi- ety disorders have the earliest onset (typically beginning around age 6), fol- lowed by behavior disorders (age 11), mood disorders (age 13), and substance use disorders (age 15) (Merikangas et al., 2010). Suicidal thoughts and behaviors are rare in children, but increase dramati- cally starting around age 12 |
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Term
| Developmental psychopathology |
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Definition
| he field of developmental psychopathology focuses on determining what is abnormal at any point in the developmental process by comparing and contrasting it with normal and expected changes that occur. It is important to note that there is no sharp line of demarcation between the maladaptive behavior patterns of childhood and those of adolescence (i.e., no precise age at which temper tantrums are now considered officially “abnormal”), or between those of adolescence and those of adulthood. |
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Term
| Young children are especially vulnerable to psychological problems |
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Definition
• They do not have as complex and realistic a view of themselves and their world as they will have later, and they have not yet developed a stable sense of identity or a clear understanding of what is expected of them and what resources they might have to deal with problems.
• Immediately perceived threats are tempered less by considerations of the past or future and thus tend to be seen as disproportionately important. As a result, chil- dren often have more difficulty than adults in coping with stressful events (Mash & Barkley, 2006).
• Children’s lack of experience in dealing with adver- sity can make manageable problems seem insur- mountable (Scott et al., 2010). For instance, one of the authors of this book thought the world would literally end when he didn’t attend his junior prom. (Spoiler alert: It did not.)
Children also are more dependent on other people than are adults. Although in some ways this depend- ency serves as a buffer against other dangers because the adults around him or her might “protect” a child against stressors in the environment, it also makes the child highly vulnerable to abuse or neglect by others. |
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Term
| Anxiety disorders are the most common mental dis- order among children and adolescents, |
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Definition
| Anxiety disorders are the most common mental dis- order among children and adolescents, occurring at some point in the lifetime of approximately 32 percent of U.S. youth (Merikangas et al., 2010). They occur at higher rates among girls (38 percent) than boys (26 per- cent), and most commonly take the form of specific pho- bias (19 percent), social phobia (9 percent), separation anxiety disorder (8 percent), and posttraumatic stress disorder (5 percent) ( |
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Term
| Separation anxiety disorder |
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Definition
| Separation anxiety disorder, classified under anxiety disorders in DSM-5, is characterized by excessive anxiety about separation from major attachment figures, such as mothers, and from familiar home surroundings (Bernstein & Layne, 2006). Children with separation anxiety disorder often lack self-confidence, are apprehensive in new situations, and tend to be immature for their age. Such children are described by their parents as shy, sensitive, nervous, submissive, easily discouraged, worried, and frequently moved to tears. In many cases, a clear psychosocial stressor can be identified, such as the death of a relative or a pet. |
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Term
| CAUSAL FACTORS IN ANXIETY DISORDERS |
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Definition
| A num- ber of causal factors have been emphasized in explanations of the childhood anxiety disorders. Although genetic fac- tors have been thought to contribute to the development of anxiety disorders, particularly obsessive-compulsive disor- der, in children (Nestadt et al., 2010), social and cultural fac- tors are likely to be influential in resulting in anxiety disorders in children. |
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Term
| Biologically Based Treatments |
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Definition
| Biologically Based Treatments Psychopharmacological treatment of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents is becoming more common today (Vitiello & Waslick, 2010). In general, the same medications used to treat adult anxiety disorders are used in the treatment of these disor- ders among children and adolescents. The most commonly used medications are benzodiazepines, which rapidly inhibit the central nervous system (CNS), providing a calming effect, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, which increase the availability of serotonin over time |
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Term
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Definition
| Cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) has been shown to be highly effective at reducing anxiety symptoms in young children (Hirshfeld-Becker et al., 2010; Legerstee et al., 2010). Kendall and colleagues have pioneered the use of CBT for child anxiety using pos- itive reinforcement to enhance coping strategies to deal with fears (Chu & Kendall, 2004). Using this approach, the clinician tailors the treatment to a child’s particular problem, and exposure to the anxiety-provoking stimuli is an especially important component of this approach |
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Term
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Definition
| Childhood depression, like depression in adults, is charac- terized by symptoms of sadness, withdrawal, crying, poor sleep and appetite, and in some cases thoughts of suicide or suicide attempts. |
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Term
| “internalizing disorders” |
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Definition
| Anxiety and depressive disorders often are referred to as “internalizing disorders” because the focus of the symp- toms is on what is happening inside the person (i.e., abnormalities in their thoughts and feelings). |
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Term
| “externaliz- ing disorders.” |
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Definition
| In con- trast to internalizing disorders, disorders characterized by symptoms focused out- side the person, such as engagement in disruptive and impulsive behavior, often are referred to as “externaliz- ing disorders.” Two of the most common externalizing disorders are oppositional defiant disorder and conduct dis- order. O |
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Term
| Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) |
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Definition
| Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) is characterized by a recurrent pattern of negativistic, defiant, disobedi- ent, and hostile behavior toward authority figures that persists for at least 6 months. ODD is grouped into three subtypes: angry/irritable mood, argumentative/defiant behavior, and vindictiveness. |
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Term
|
Definition
Conduct disorder (CD) is characterized by a persistent, repetitive violation of rules and a disregard for the rights of others (see the DSM criteria box for CD).
A SELF-PERPETUATING CYCLE Evidence has accumu- lated that a genetic predisposition leading to low verbal intelligence, mild neuropsychological problems, and difficult temperament can set the stage for early-onset CD |
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Term
| Connection between mental disorders and ODD and CD |
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Definition
| One study that followed more than 1,000 children for many years into adulthood revealed that between 25 and 60 percent of people who have a mental dis- order during adulthood had a history of CD and/or ODD during childhood or adolescence |
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Term
| ODD then CD forms (I think) |
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Definition
It is the pervasiveness of the problems first associated with ODD and then with CD that forms the pattern associated with an adult diagnosis of psychopathy or antisocial personality.
There is some evidence that parental behavior can inadvertently “train” antisocial behavior in children— directly via coercive interchanges (e.g., mother asks child to get ready for bed ➔ child starts whining ➔ whining annoys mother so she walks away and lets her stay awake: here the child learns that if she whines she gets her way, whereas the mother learns that if she backs off the child stops whining; both behaviors are reinforced and the child has “learned” to misbehave) and indirectly via lack of monitoring and con- sistent discipline (Capaldi & Patterson, 1994). This all too often leads to association with deviant peers and the oppor- tunity for further learning of antisocial behavior. In addition to these familial factors, a number of broader psychosocial and sociocultural variables increase the probability that a child will develop CD and, later, adult psychopathy or antisocial personality disorder (Granic & Patterson, 2006) or depressive disorder (Boylan et al., 2010). Low socioeconomic status, poor neighborhoods, parental stress, and depression all appear to increase the likelihood that a child will become enmeshed in this cycle |
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Term
| Treatments for CD and ODD |
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Definition
| However, two psychological approaches that target some of the key risk factors mentioned above do have a positive effect. Parent management training, an approach in which the clinician teaches the parents how to effectively prompt and reinforce prosocial behaviors while ignoring aggressive or antisocial behaviors, has been shown to be quite effective. In addition, a separate approach in which the clinician meets with the child to teach social prob- lem-solving skills (such as how to generate and perform more adaptive responses to others) also has proven effective. The combination of these two approaches is especially effec- tive at decreasing child conduct problems, with effects last- ing well after treatment has ended ( |
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Term
|
Definition
| The childhood disorders we deal with in this section— “elimination disorders” (enuresis and encopresis)—involve a single outstanding symptom rather than a pervasive mal- adaptive pattern. |
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Term
enuresis
(Elimination Disorders) |
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Definition
The term enuresis refers to the habitual involuntary dis- charge of urine, usually at night, after the age of expected continence (age 5). In the DSM-5, functional enuresis is an elimination disorder described as bed-wetting that is not organically caused. Children who have primary functional enuresis have never been continent; children who have secondary functional enuresis have been continent for at least a year but have regressed.
Enuresis may result from a variety of organic condi- tions, such as disturbed cerebral control of the bladder (Goin, 1998), neurological dysfunction, other medical fac- tors such as medication side effects ( |
|
|
Term
encopresis
(Elimination Disorders) |
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Definition
| The term encopresis describes a symptom disorder of children who have not learned appropriate toileting for bowel movements after age 4. |
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Term
| Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) |
|
Definition
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is charac- terized by a persistent pattern of difficulties sustaining atten- tion and/or impulsiveness and excessive or exaggerated motor activity. We all have had lapses in attention or periods of excess energy during childhood; however, in order to meet criteria for ADHD these problems have to be numerous, per- sistent, and causing impairment at home, school, or the workplace
The rate of ADHD is much higher in boys (13 percent) than in girls (4 percent) (Merikangas et al., 2010) and is commonly comorbid with other externalizing disorders such as ODD and CD
It is esti- mated that approximately 4 percent of U.S. adults meet criteria for ADHD, with higher rates among those who are male, divorced, and unemployed (K |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Autism spectrum disorder (which we refer to as “autism”) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that involves a wide range of problematic behaviors including deficits in lan- guage and perceptual and motor development; defective reality testing; and impairments in social communication. |
|
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Term
| Self-Stimulation (Autism) |
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Definition
| Self-stimulation is often characteristic of children with autism. It usually takes the form of such repetitive movements as head banging, spinning, and rocking, which may continue by the hour. |
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Term
| Maintaining Sameness (Autism) |
|
Definition
| Many children with autism become preoccupied with and form strong attachments to unusual objects such as rocks, light switches, or keys. When their preoccupation with the object is disturbed—for example, by its removal or by attempts to substitute some- thing in its place—or when anything familiar in the envi- ronment is altered even slightly, these children may have a violent temper tantrum or a crying spell that continues until the familiar situation is restored. |
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Term
| Behavioral Treatment (Autism) |
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Definition
| intensive behavioral intervention admin- istered via one-on-one meetings with the child for over 40 hours per week for 2 years resulted in extremely positive results. The intervention was based on both discrimination- training strategies (reinforcement) and contingent aver- sive techniques (punishment). The treatment plan typically enlists parents in the process and emphasizes teaching children to learn from and interact with “normal” peers in real-world situations. Of the treated children in the study by Lovaas and colleagues, 47 percent achieved normal intellectual and educational functioning, com- pared with only 2 percent of children in the untreated control condition. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A tic is a persistent, intermittent muscle twitch or spasm, usually limited to a localized muscle group. The term is used broadly to include blinking the eye, twitching the mouth, licking the lips, shrugging the shoulders, clearing the throat, and grimacing, among other actions. Tic disor- ders are classified under motor disorders in DSM-5. Tics occur most frequently between the ages of 2 and 14 (Evans et al., 1996). In some instances, as in clearing the throat, an individual may be aware of the tic when it occurs, but usu- ally he or she performs the act habitually and does not notice it. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Learning disorders are delays in cognitive development in the areas of language, speech, mathematical, or motor skills that are not necessarily due to any demonstrable physical or neurological defect. Of these types of problems, the best known and most widely researched are a variety of reading/writing difficulties known collectively as dyslexia. |
|
|
Term
| Casual Factors in Learning Disorders |
|
Definition
For example, many researchers believe that language-related learning disorders such as dyslexia are associated with a failure of the brain to develop in a normally asymmetrical manner with respect to the right and left hemispheres.
Although it would be somewhat surprising if a single gene were identified as the causal factor in all cases of reading disorder, the hypothesis of a genetic contribution to at least the dyslexic form of learn- ing disorder seems promising.
Currently there arent very good treatments available (i think) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Intellectual disability (also called intellectual developmental disorder) is characterized by deficits in general mental abili- ties, such as reasoning, problem solving, planning, abstract thinking, judgment, academic learning, and learning from experience (APA, 2013, p. 31). Intellectual disability is defined in terms of both intelligence and level of perfor- mance, and for the diagnosis to apply these problems must begin before the age of 18. By definition, any functional equivalent of intellectual disability that has its onset after age 17 is considered to be “dementia” rather than intellec- tual disability. The distinction is an important one because the psychological situation of a person who acquires a pro- nounced impairment of intellectual functioning after attaining maturity is vastly different from that of a person whose intellectual resources were below normal through- out all or most of his or her developmen |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The childhood disorders we deal with in this section— “elimination disorders” (enuresis and encopresis)—involve a single outstanding symptom rather than a pervasive mal- adaptive pattern. |
|
|
Term
enuresis
(Elimination Disorders) |
|
Definition
The term enuresis refers to the habitual involuntary dis- charge of urine, usually at night, after the age of expected continence (age 5). In the DSM-5, functional enuresis is an elimination disorder described as bed-wetting that is not organically caused. Children who have primary functional enuresis have never been continent; children who have secondary functional enuresis have been continent for at least a year but have regressed.
Enuresis may result from a variety of organic condi- tions, such as disturbed cerebral control of the bladder (Goin, 1998), neurological dysfunction, other medical fac- tors such as medication side effects ( |
|
|
Term
encopresis
(Elimination Disorders) |
|
Definition
| The term encopresis describes a symptom disorder of children who have not learned appropriate toileting for bowel movements after age 4. |
|
|
Term
| Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) |
|
Definition
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is charac- terized by a persistent pattern of difficulties sustaining atten- tion and/or impulsiveness and excessive or exaggerated motor activity. We all have had lapses in attention or periods of excess energy during childhood; however, in order to meet criteria for ADHD these problems have to be numerous, per- sistent, and causing impairment at home, school, or the workplace
The rate of ADHD is much higher in boys (13 percent) than in girls (4 percent) (Merikangas et al., 2010) and is commonly comorbid with other externalizing disorders such as ODD and CD
It is esti- mated that approximately 4 percent of U.S. adults meet criteria for ADHD, with higher rates among those who are male, divorced, and unemployed (K |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Autism spectrum disorder (which we refer to as “autism”) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that involves a wide range of problematic behaviors including deficits in lan- guage and perceptual and motor development; defective reality testing; and impairments in social communication. |
|
|
Term
| Self-Stimulation (Autism) |
|
Definition
| Self-stimulation is often characteristic of children with autism. It usually takes the form of such repetitive movements as head banging, spinning, and rocking, which may continue by the hour. |
|
|
Term
| Maintaining Sameness (Autism) |
|
Definition
| Many children with autism become preoccupied with and form strong attachments to unusual objects such as rocks, light switches, or keys. When their preoccupation with the object is disturbed—for example, by its removal or by attempts to substitute some- thing in its place—or when anything familiar in the envi- ronment is altered even slightly, these children may have a violent temper tantrum or a crying spell that continues until the familiar situation is restored. |
|
|
Term
| Behavioral Treatment (Autism) |
|
Definition
| intensive behavioral intervention admin- istered via one-on-one meetings with the child for over 40 hours per week for 2 years resulted in extremely positive results. The intervention was based on both discrimination- training strategies (reinforcement) and contingent aver- sive techniques (punishment). The treatment plan typically enlists parents in the process and emphasizes teaching children to learn from and interact with “normal” peers in real-world situations. Of the treated children in the study by Lovaas and colleagues, 47 percent achieved normal intellectual and educational functioning, com- pared with only 2 percent of children in the untreated control condition. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A tic is a persistent, intermittent muscle twitch or spasm, usually limited to a localized muscle group. The term is used broadly to include blinking the eye, twitching the mouth, licking the lips, shrugging the shoulders, clearing the throat, and grimacing, among other actions. Tic disor- ders are classified under motor disorders in DSM-5. Tics occur most frequently between the ages of 2 and 14 (Evans et al., 1996). In some instances, as in clearing the throat, an individual may be aware of the tic when it occurs, but usu- ally he or she performs the act habitually and does not notice it. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Learning disorders are delays in cognitive development in the areas of language, speech, mathematical, or motor skills that are not necessarily due to any demonstrable physical or neurological defect. Of these types of problems, the best known and most widely researched are a variety of reading/writing difficulties known collectively as dyslexia. |
|
|
Term
| Casual Factors in Learning Disorders |
|
Definition
For example, many researchers believe that language-related learning disorders such as dyslexia are associated with a failure of the brain to develop in a normally asymmetrical manner with respect to the right and left hemispheres.
Although it would be somewhat surprising if a single gene were identified as the causal factor in all cases of reading disorder, the hypothesis of a genetic contribution to at least the dyslexic form of learn- ing disorder seems promising.
Currently there arent very good treatments available (i think) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Intellectual disability (also called intellectual developmental disorder) is characterized by deficits in general mental abili- ties, such as reasoning, problem solving, planning, abstract thinking, judgment, academic learning, and learning from experience (APA, 2013, p. 31). Intellectual disability is defined in terms of both intelligence and level of perfor- mance, and for the diagnosis to apply these problems must begin before the age of 18. By definition, any functional equivalent of intellectual disability that has its onset after age 17 is considered to be “dementia” rather than intellec- tual disability. The distinction is an important one because the psychological situation of a person who acquires a pro- nounced impairment of intellectual functioning after attaining maturity is vastly different from that of a person whose intellectual resources were below normal through- out all or most of his or her developmen |
|
|
Term
| MILD INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY |
|
Definition
| Tests of human intelligence produce IQ scores that have an average of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. That means that most peo- ple (95 percent) receive a score somewhere between 70 and 130. Individuals with mild intellectual disability have IQ scores ranging from 50–55 to approximately 70 (i.e., more than two standard deviations below the mean) and consti- tute by far the largest number of those diagnosed with this condition |
|
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Term
| Levels of INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY |
|
Definition
Mild disability 50–55 to approximately 70
Moderate disability 35–40 to 50–55
Severe disability 20–25 to 35–40
Profound disability Below 20–25 |
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|
Term
| MODERATE INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY |
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Definition
| Individuals with moderate intellectual disability have IQ scores ranging between 35–40 and 50–55 and, even in adulthood, attain intellectual levels similar to those of average 4- to 7-year- old children. |
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Term
| SEVERE INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY |
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Definition
| Individuals with severe intellectual disability have IQ scores ranging from 20–25 to 35–40 and commonly suffer from impaired speech development, sensory defects, and motor handicaps. |
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Term
| PROFOUND INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY |
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Definition
| Most indi- viduals with profound intellectual disability have IQ scores below 20–25 and are severely deficient in adaptive behav- ior and unable to master any but the simplest tasks. Useful speech, if it develops at all, is rudimentary. Severe physical deformities, CNS pathology, and retarded growth are typi- cal; convulsive seizures, mutism, deafness, and other phys- ical anomalies are also common. |
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Term
| DOWN SYNDROME (Organic Intellectual Disability Syndrome) |
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Definition
| DOWN SYNDROME First described by Langdon Down in 1866, Down syndrome is the best known of the clinical conditions associated with moderate and severe intellec- tual disability. The prevalence of Down syndrome has been reported to be 5.9 per 10,000 of the general population |
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Term
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Definition
In phenylketonuria (PKU), a baby appears normal at birth but lacks a liver enzyme needed to break down phenylalanine, an amino acid found in many foods. The genetic error results in intellectual disability only when significant quantities of phenylalanine are ingested, which is virtually certain to occur if the child’s condition remains undiagnosed
This disorder, which occurs in about 1 in 12,000 births (Deb & Ahmed, 2000), is reversible (Embury et al., 2007); how- ever, if it is not detected and treated, the amount of phenyl- alanine in the blood increases and eventually produces brain damage. |
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Term
| Macrocephaly (Cranial Anomalies) |
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Definition
| In the rare condition known as macrocephaly (“large-headedness”), for example, there is an increase in the size and weight of the brain, an enlargement of |
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Term
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Definition
The condition known as microcephaly (“small-headedness”) is defined by a head circumference that is more than three standard deviations below that of children of the same age and sex and is caused by decreased growth of the cerebral cortex during infancy
Children with microcephaly fall within the moderate, severe, and profound categories of intellectual disability and most show little language development and are extremely lim- ited in mental capacity. |
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Term
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Definition
| The condition referred to as hydrocephaly is a relatively rare disorder in which the accumulation of an abnormal amount of cerebrospinal fluid within the cra- nium causes damage to the brain tissues and enlargement of the skull ( |
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Term
| mainstreaming or “inclusion programming”— |
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Definition
| Many such children fare better when they attend regular classes for much of the day. Of course, this type of approach—often called mainstreaming or “inclusion programming”—requires careful planning, a high level of teacher skill, and facilitative teacher attitudes |
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Term
| Children Seeking Treatment |
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Definition
The law identifies four areas in which treatment with- out parental consent is permitted: (1) in the case of mature minors (those considered capable of making decisions about themselves); (2) in the case of emancipated minors (those living independently, away from their parents); (3) in emergency situations; and (4) in situations in which a court orders treatment.
Many children, of course, come to the attention of treatment agencies as a consequence of school referrals, delinquent acts, abuse by parents, or as a result of family custody court cases |
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Term
| Children in Detention/jail |
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Definition
| Depend- ing on the home situation and the special needs of the child, he or she will later either be returned to his or her parents or placed elsewhere. In the latter instance, four types of facilities are commonly relied on: (1) foster homes, (2) private institutions for the care of children such as group homes, (3) county or state institutions, and (4) the homes of relatives. |
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