Term
| According to the DSM-5, a person must meet the following criteria to be diagnosed with a personality disorder: |
|
Definition
Enduring pattern of inner experience and behaviour that deviates markedly from cultural expectations, manifested by two or more of the following:
cognition
affect
interpersonal functioning
impulse control.
The pattern in which these symptoms are exhibited must be inflexible and pervasive.
Leads to clinically significant distress or impairment, stable over time and of long duration. |
|
|
Term
| There are three clusters (general types) of personality disorders: |
|
Definition
- Cluster A (MAD): odd/eccentric (paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal).
- Cluster B (BAD): dramatic/impulsive (narcissistic, borderline, histrionic, and antisocial).
- Cluster C (SAD): anxious/fearful (avoidant, dependent, obsessive compulsive). |
|
|
Term
| Cluster A (There are three clusters (general types) of personality disorders:) |
|
Definition
- Schizoid: Exhibits indifference to social relationships, loner tendencies, flat affect and lack of social skills, and appear cold and indifferent. Prevalence not clearly established, but <1%, with twice as many males as females.
- Schizotypal: Exhibits odd and peculiar ideation and behaviours resulting in interpersonal difficulties, magical thinking, superstitious beliefs, and odd appearance. Prevalence is estimated at 3% of the general population, but the sex ratio is not well known.
- Paranoid: There is a pervasive sense of suspicion and mistrust. Others are seen as threatening, critical, and demeaning. Interpersonal style is tense, argumentative, fearful, cold, and restricted in emotional expression. Prevalence is estimated to be about 1%, though more common in men than women. |
|
|
Term
Cluster B
(There are three clusters (general types) of personality disorders) |
|
Definition
- Antisocial: Exhibits a long-standing pattern of irresponsible behaviour that violates the rights of others (e.g. unstable work patterns, illegal activities, aggression). Prevalence from 0.2 to 9.4% (average = 3%); more males than females have the disorder.
- Aetiology: Characterised by self-regulation and fearlessness. It’s biological, 52% of monozygotic twins both have the disorder, whereas only 21% of dizygotic twins both have the disorder.
- Histrionic: Exhibits excessive emotional reactivity and attention-seeking. Prevalence is 2-3% and 10-15% in clinical settings. Diagnosed more frequently in females than males.
- Narcissistic: Characterised by pervasive sense of personal grandiosity. Prevalence may be less than 1% in the general population; 2-16% in clinical populations.
- Borderline: Characterised by dysregulation. Lifetime prevalence rate of 1-2% in non-clinical samples. Between 62% and 75% diagnosed are female. |
|
|
Term
Cluster C
(There are three clusters (general types) of personality disorders) |
|
Definition
- Avoidant: Exhibits heightened sensitivity to pain, ambivalence about receiving reinforcement from others and active detachment caused by increased sensitivity to perceived rejection and humiliation. Considerable overlap between this disorder and social phobia. Prevalence is 1%.
- Dependent: Characterised by an interpersonal pattern that involves dependency on and submission to others. Little empirical support for this diagnosis. The prevalence is 1.5%, but more women than men have the disorder (it is closely related to sexual stereotypes).
- Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD): Characterised by extreme perfectionism, preoccupation with details, rules, lists, etc. Must be distinguished from OCPD. OCD is ego-dystonic which refers to thoughts, images and feelings that a person regards as alien, unwanted and inconsistent with self-image. By contrast, OCPD is usually ego-syntonic. The prevalence is unknown (1%?), but is more common in men than women. |
|
|
Term
Categorical models
The categorical model is used in both the DSM-IV and the DSM-5. It makes the assumption that individuals can be categorised as either having a personality disorder or not, using arbitrary cut-off points on instruments constructed to detect the presence of a disorder. |
|
Definition
Advantages:
Ease of conceptualisation and communication.
Simpler in some respects (e.g. disorder or no disorder).
Familiarity.
What has been used—changing it requires a major shift.
Consistency with clinical decisions.
Disadvantages:
Decision between presence versus absence is arbitrary.
Degrees of mild, moderate, and severely impaired are lost.
Diagnosis can take a considerable amount of time (there are more than 100 diagnostic criteria for personality disorders). |
|
|
Term
Dimensional models
The dimensional model acknowledges that the cut-off points used to determine whether an individual has a personality disorder are arbitrary, and that many people may not meet the criteria for a particular personality disorder, but still experience severe disturbance. Although the categorical model is still used in the DSM-5, an additional approach using a hybrid of the categorical and dimensional models has also been added, in order to encourage research. This approach uses the categorical cut-off points, but also allows diagnosis of particular pathological traits and difficulties in personality functioning for those who do not meet these criteria. |
|
Definition
Advantages:
Resolution of classificatory dilemmas.
Does not rely on arbitrary cut-off points.
Retention of detailed information.
Suits patients who may not be prototypical.
Diminishes stereotyping by providing more precise information.
Flexibility—can go to categorical model from a dimensional model but not vice-versa.
Disadvantages:
Lack of apparent clinical utility.
A problem for both research and practice.
May impede the identification of discrete aetiologies and treatment. |
|
|
Term
There is a general agreement among researchers that personality:
Group of answer choices
is mainly learned.
can be characterised by five basic trait dimensions.
has an infinite number of possible trait dimensions.
is mainly genetic. |
|
Definition
| can be characterised by five basic trait dimensions. |
|
|
Term
Individuals with personality disorders:
Group of answer choices
comply with societal expectations.
reject societal expectations.
are unable to perform some roles expected by society.
have a strong sense of self. |
|
Definition
| are unable to perform some roles expected by society. |
|
|
Term
Unlike the person with paranoid schizophrenia, the person with paranoid personality disorder:
Group of answer choices
becomes delusional in response to an actual betrayal or hurtful incident with another person.
has persistent loss of reality contact.
tends to confide in others and assume the loyalty of his or her friends.
is in contact with reality, although he or she may have transient psychotic symptoms |
|
Definition
| is in contact with reality, although he or she may have transient psychotic symptoms. |
|
|
Term
The best description of the biological component of personality disorders is:
Group of answer choices
they are directly inherited disorders.
they have no biological component, they are learned.
personality traits are inherited that predispose a person to developing a personality disorder.
people inherit the trait of anxiety, which underlies all of the personality disorders and predisposes people to developing a personality disorder. |
|
Definition
| personality traits are inherited that predispose a person to developing a personality disorder. |
|
|
Term
Which basic personality traits from the five-factor model seem most important in the development of schizoid personality disorder?
Group of answer choices
Low agreeableness and high antagonism.
High introversion and low openness to feelings.
High introversion and low agreeableness.
Low excitement seeking and high fantasy proneness |
|
Definition
| High introversion and low openness to feelings. |
|
|
Term
Luisa is a lively and emotional graduate student. She dresses provocatively and behaves in a very seductive manner with her male professors. She has had a long string of short-lived, stormy romances. Luisa is most likely to have a diagnosis of:
Group of answer choices
histrionic personality disorder.
narcissistic personality disorder.
dependent personality disorder.
passive-aggressive personality disorder. |
|
Definition
| histrionic personality disorder. |
|
|
Term
Hope believes that she is the 'star' of her graduate class and that the other students dislike her because they are jealous of her superior intelligence. She believes that she is entitled to be exempted from an important exam because of her outstanding performance in class. Hope probably suffers from:
Group of answer choices
histrionic personality disorder.
narcissistic personality disorder.
dependent personality disorder.
schizoid personality disorder. |
|
Definition
| narcissistic personality disorder. |
|
|
Term
Early criminal behaviour is most characteristic of:
Group of answer choices
antisocial personality disorder.
borderline personality disorder.
schizoid personality disorder.
schizotypal personality disorder. |
|
Definition
| antisocial personality disorder. |
|
|
Term
What 'border' did the term 'borderline' in borderline personality refer to?
Group of answer choices
The border between Axis I and Axis II disorders.
People with borderline personality disorder were thought to be on the brink of psychosis, on the border between sanity and insanity.
Because people with borderline personality disorder behave normally much of the time, they were thought to only be on the edge of mental illness.
The behaviours exhibited by people with borderline personality disorder lie on continuum between neurotic and psychotic disorders. |
|
Definition
| The behaviours exhibited by people with borderline personality disorder lie on continuum between neurotic and psychotic disorders. |
|
|
Term
Which basic personality traits from the five-factor model seem most important in the development of avoidant personality disorder?
Group of answer choices
High extraversion and low openness to feelings.
High introversion and high neuroticism.
High antagonism and low neuroticism.
High agreeableness and high angry hostility. |
|
Definition
| High introversion and high neuroticism. |
|
|
Term
| Describe and differentiate between the Cluster A personality. |
|
Definition
| The Cluster A personality disorders are all alike in that they are characterized by odd behaviour. This cluster includes the paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders. All disorders share some common features with schizophrenia, but it is only thought that schizotypal personality disorder is related to schizophrenia. The paranoid personality is characterized by extreme suspicion and distrust. This is the individual who can't forgive even the smallest perceived slight. The paranoid personality is always looking for someone to do him or her wrong, but he or she is not psychotic. Despite the prevalent paranoia, the paranoid personality is firmly in touch with reality. The schizoid personality shows some of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia, social withdrawal and flat affect. This is the loner, who prefers to be alone and seems to take pleasure in nothing. The schizotypal personality is best described as odd and eccentric. They may show some bizarre thinking, but are generally in touch with reality. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a personality disorder. The general fea- tures that characterize most personality disorders are chronic interpersonal difficulties, problems with one’s identity or sense of self, and an inability to function ade- quately in society |
|
|
Term
| Personality Disorder definition |
|
Definition
| For a personality disorder to be diagnosed, the per- son’s enduring pattern of behavior must be pervasive and inflexible, as well as stable and of long duration. It must also cause either clinically significant distress or impairment in functioning and be manifested in at least two of the follow- ing areas: cognition, affectivity, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control. |
|
|
Term
| neuroticism (Sub-facets)/ extroversion |
|
Definition
To fully account for the myr- iad ways in which people differ, each of these five basic personality traits also has subcomponents or facets. For example, the trait of neuroticism is comprised of the fol- lowing six facets: anxiety, angry-hostility, depression, self-consciousness, impulsiveness, and vulnerability.
extraversion is composed of the following six facets: warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excite- ment seeking, and positive emotions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Within a dimensional approach, normal personality trait dimensions can be recast into corresponding domains that represent more pathological extremes of these dimen- sions: negative affectivity (neuroticism); detachment (extreme introversion); antagonism (extremely low agree- ableness); and disinhibition (extremely low conscien- tiousness). A fifth dimension, psychoticism, does not appear to be a pathological extreme of the final dimen- sion of normal personality (openness)— |
|
|
Term
| schizoid personality disorder (Cluster A) |
|
Definition
Individuals with schizoid personality disorder have diffi- culties forming social relationships and usually lack much interest in doing so. Consequently, they tend not to have good friends, with the possible exception of a close rela- tive. Such people are unable to express their feelings and are seen by others as cold and distant. They often lack social skills and can be classified as loners or introverts, with solitary interests and occupations, although not all loners or introverts have schizoid personality disorder
In terms of the five-factor model, people with schizoid personality disorder show extremely high levels of intro- version (especially low on warmth, gregariousness, and positive emotions). They are also low on openness to feel- ings (one facet of openness to experience) and on achieve- ment striving |
|
|
Term
| schizotypal personality disorder (Cluster A) |
|
Definition
Like people with schizoid personality disorder, individuals with schizotypal personality disorder are also excessively introverted and have pervasive social and interpersonal deficits. But in addition they have cognitive and perceptual distortions, as well as oddities and eccentricities in their communication and behavior (Kwapil & Barrantes-Vidal, 2012; Raine, 2006). Although contact with reality is usually maintained, highly personalized and superstitious think- ing is characteristic of people with schizotypal personality, and under extreme stress they may experience transient psychotic symptoms Indeed, they often believe that they have magical powers and may engage in magical rituals. Other cognitive– perceptual problems include ideas of reference (the belief that conversations or gestures of others have special meaning or personal significance), odd speech, and para- noid beliefs
Indeed, these core symptoms of schizotypy form the basis of the only proposed trait that does not map neatly onto the five factors of normal personality. This pathologi- cal trait is psychoticism, which consists of three facets: unusual beliefs and experiences, eccentricity, and cognitive and perceptual dysregulation |
|
|
Term
| histrionic per- sonality disorder (Cluster B) |
|
Definition
Excessive attention-seeking behavior and emotionality are the key characteristics of individuals with histrionic per- sonality disorder. As you can see from the DSM-5 criteria box, these individuals tend to feel unappreciated if they are not the center of attention; their lively, dramatic, and exces- sively extraverted styles often ensure that they can charm others into attending to them. But these qualities do not lead to stable and satisfying relationships because others tire of providing this level of attention. In craving stimula- tion and attention, their appearance and behavior are often quite theatrical and emotional as well as sexually provoca- tive
. In terms of the five-factor model (refer back to Table 10.2), the very high levels of extraversion of patients with histrionic personality disorder include high levels of gregariousness, excitement seeking, and positive emotions. Their high levels of neuroticism particularly involve the depression and self-consciousness facets; they are also high on openness to fantasies ( |
|
|
Term
| narcissistic personality disorder (Cluster B) |
|
Definition
Individuals with narcissistic personality disorder show an exaggerated sense of self-importance, a preoccupa- tion with being admired, and a lack of empathy for the feelings of others (Pincus & Lukowitsky, 2010; Ronning- stam, 2005, 2009, 2012). Numerous studies support the notion of two subtypes of narcissism: grandiose and vul- nerable narcissism (Cain et al., 2008; Ronningstam, 2005, 2012). The grandiose presentation of narcissism, high- lighted in the DSM-5 criteria, is manifested by traits related to grandiosity, aggression, and dominance. These are reflected in a strong tendency to overestimate their abilities and accomplishments while underestimating the abilities and accomplishments of others.
Vulnerable narcissists have a very fragile and unstable sense of self-esteem, and for these individuals, arrogance and condescension is merely a façade for intense shame and hypersensitivity to rejection and criticism. Vulnerable narcissists may become completely absorbed and preoccupied with fanta- sies of outstanding achievement but at the same time expe- rience profound shame about their ambitions. They may avoid interpersonal relationships due to fear of rejection or criticism.
In terms of the five-factor model, both subtypes are associated with high levels of interper- sonal antagonism/low agreeableness (which includes traits of low modesty, arrogance, grandiosity, and superior- ity), low altruism (expecting favorable treatment and exploiting others), and tough-mindedness (lack of empa- thy). However, the person with a more grandiose form of narcissism is exceptionally low in certain facets of neuroti- cism and high in extraversion. |
|
|
Term
| antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) (Cluster B) |
|
Definition
| The outstanding characteristic of people with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) is their tendency to persis- tently disregard and violate the rights of others. They do this through a combination of deceitful, aggressive, and antisocial behaviors. |
|
|
Term
| borderline personality disorder (BPD) (Cluster B) |
|
Definition
Later, the word was used to describe patients who had some features of schizophrenia (as in borderline schizophrenia). People with borderline personality disorder (BPD) show a pattern of behavior characterized by impulsivity and instability in their interpersonal relationships, their self-image, and their moods. A central characteristic is affective instability. This shows itself in unusually intense emotional responses to environmental triggers, and a slow return to a baseline emotional state.This is combined with a highly unstable self-image or sense of self. People with BPD often have chronic feelings of emptiness and have difficulty forming a sense of who they really are. They also struggle to cope with a highly negative self- concept and find it hard to tolerate being alone.
In addition to having affective and impulsive behav- ioral symptoms, as many as 75 percent of people with BPD have cognitive symptoms. These include relatively short or transient episodes in which they appear to be out of con- tact with reality and experience psychotic-like symptoms such as hallucinations, paranoid ideas, or severe dissocia- tive symptoms
What makes BPD unusual, however, is that it tends to be comorbid with both internalizing dis- orders (such as mood and anxiety disorders), as well as externalizing disorders (such as substance use disorders
In terms of the five-factor model, BPD is conceptualized as involving high neuroticism, low agree- ableness, low conscientiousness, and high openness to feel- ings and actions |
|
|
Term
| avoidant personality disorder (Cluster C) |
|
Definition
Individuals with avoidant personality disorder show extreme social inhibition and introversion, leading to life- long patterns of limited social relationships and reluctance to enter into social interactions. Because of their hypersen- sitivity to, and fear of, criticism and disapproval, they do not seek out other people, yet they desire affection and are often lonely and bored. Unlike schizoid personalities, peo- ple with avoidant personality disorder do not enjoy their aloneness.
Feeling inept and socially inadequate are the two most prevalent and stable features of avoidant personality disorder
avoidant personality disor- der looks a lot like schizoid personality disorder. Both types of people are socially isolated. The key difference is that the person with schizoid personality disorder has little desire to form close relationships. Such people tend to be rather aloof, cold, and relatively indifferent to criticism (Millon & Martinez, 1995). In contrast, the person with avoidant per- sonality disorder wants interpersonal contact but is shy, insecure, and hypersensitive to criticism. |
|
|
Term
| dependent personality disorder (Cluster C) |
|
Definition
Individuals with dependent personality disorder show an extreme need to be taken care of, which leads to clinging and submissive behavior. They also show acute fear at the possibility of separation or sometimes of simply having to be alone because they see themselves as inept
In terms of the five-factor model, dependent personality disorder is associated with high levels of neuroticism and agreeable- ness |
|
|
Term
| obsessive- compulsive personality disorder (OCPD). (Cluster C) |
|
Definition
Perfectionism and an excessive concern with orderliness and control characterize individuals with obsessive- compulsive personality disorder (OCPD).
Theorists who take a five-factor dimensional approach to understanding OCPD note that these individuals have excessively high levels of consci- entiousness (Samuel & Widiger, 2011). This leads to extreme devotion to work, perfectionism, and excessive controlling behavior. They are also high on assertiveness (a facet of extraversion) and low on compliance (a facet of agreeableness). |
|
|
Term
| Treatments and Outcomes for Personality Disorders |
|
Definition
| Personality disorders are generally very difficult to treat, in part because they are, by definition, relatively enduring, pervasive, and inflexible patterns of behavior and inner experience. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), developed by Marsha Linehan, is a unique kind of cognitive and behav- ioral therapy specifically adapted for BPD |
|
|
