Term
| One of the first modern attempts to link personality to biological functions was made by Hans Eysenck. Eysenck saw personality as composed largely of two supertraits |
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Definition
| neuroticism and extraversion. He saw both of these as rooted in the body. Introverts are quiet and retiring; extraverts are outgoing, uninhibited, and immersed in social activity. Eysenck (1967, 1981) argued that this difference derives from differences in activation of the cerebral cortex.When the cortext is activated, the person is alert.When it’s not, the person is drowsy. Eysenck proposed that introverts normally have higher cortical arousal than extraverts.Thus, they avoid social interac- tion because it gets them overstimulated. Extraverts, with lower baseline levels, seek stimulation to bring their arousal up. |
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Term
| Eysenck also proposed a neural basis for neuroticism. |
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Definition
| Eysenck also proposed a neural basis for neuroticism. He said that people who are high on this trait are easily aroused in the brain’s emotion centers. He thought this emotional arousal intensifies the manifestations of both extraversion and introver- sion—that is, it causes both to emerge more fully in behavior.This arousal causes both extraverts and introverts to become “more of what they are.” |
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Term
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Definition
| brain chemicals are involved in certain kinds of actions.All take what might be called a functional approach. That is, they ask, What functions do particular kinds of behavior serve? The various types of behavior are then linked to ideas about brain processes, and both are also linked to personality. |
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Term
| behavioral approach system (BAS) |
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Definition
| behavioral approach system (BAS) ( J. A. Gray, 1987, 1990, 1994a, 1994b). You might think of this system as regulating the psychic gas pedal, moving you toward what you want. It’s a “go” system—a reward-seeking system (Fowles, 1980). This set of brain structures is presumed to be involved whenever a person is pursuing an incentive. It’s likely that certain parts of the brain are involved in the pursuit of food, others in the pursuit of sex, and others in the pursuit of shade on a hot summer day. But it is thought that the separate parts also link up to an overall BAS.Thus, the BAS is seen as a general mechanism to go after things you want.The BAS doesn’t rev you up “in neutral,” though, with no incentive in mind (Depue & Collins, 1999). It’s engaged only in the active pursuit of incentives. |
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Term
| Neurotransmitter/Dopamine |
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Definition
| Besides brain regions, operation of the approach system has been tentatively linked to a specific neurotransmitter in the brain. A neurotransmitter is a chemical involved in sending messages along nerve pathways. There are many neurotransmitters, and they seem to have somewhat different roles. Several theorists have argued that a neu- rotransmitter called dopamine is involved in the approach system |
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Term
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Definition
Depue and Collins (1999) linked dopamine to several aspects of extraversion, including social dominance, enthusiasm, energy, and assertiveness. Research on monkeys also linked dopamine function to greater social dominance (Kaplan, Manuck, Fontenot, & Mann, 2002). It’s also been suggested that high dopamine levels produce a flexible shifting among goals
This pattern has been seen as indicating that dopamine neu- rons are involved in detecting unexpected events of two kinds: better and worse than expected.That is, there’s an increase in activity when an event is better than expected, no change when an event occurs as expected, and a decrease in activity when an event is worse than expected (Schultz, 2006) |
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Term
"behavioral inhibition system"
threat-responsive system as an avoidance or withdrawal system |
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Definition
| Gray (1987, 1990, 1994a, 1994b) called it the behavioral inhibition system. Others have labeled a threat-responsive system as an avoidance or withdrawal system |
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Term
| Serotonin has long been believed by some to be involved in anxiety or threat sensitivity |
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Definition
| But this has not be well proven is deemed a more complex connection |
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Term
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Definition
Another candidate for involvement in anxiety is gamma-aminobutyric acid, more commonly known as GABA (Roy-Byrne, 2005). There’s some research linking sensitivity of GABA receptors to neuroticism (Glue,Wilson, Coupland, Ball, & Nutt, 1995). However, most of what is known about GABA and anxiety comes from studies of anxiety disorders. In fact, most of the studies focus specifically on panic disorder
People with panic disorder have relatively low levels of GABA (Goddard et al., 2001).Treatments that increase GABA reduce anxiety in panic patients |
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Definition
| Yet another likely contributor to the biology of threat is norepinephrine. Norepinephrine is produced in response to stress (Morilak et al., 2005), and evidence links it to panic reactions (Bailey, Argyropoulis, Lightman, & Nutt, 2003). Research has also shown that problems in regulating norepinephrine relate selectively to anxi- ety disorders (Cameron, Abelson, & Young, 2004). This finding seems to link this chemical specifically to threat sensitivity. |
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Definition
| Perhaps extraversion actually is a blend of overall BAS sensitivity and social-specific BAS sensitivity. On the other hand, several projects seem to suggest that sociality per se is not the core of extraversion. One of these projects was by Lucas, Diener, Grob, Suh, and Shao (2000).Their studies led them to conclude that the core of extraversion is reward sensitivity and the tendency to experience positive affect.They inferred that extraverts’ social tendencies stem from the fact that social interaction is one source of positive experiences. Indeed, Lucas and Diener (2001) found extraverts were drawn to situa- tions that offered opportunities for pleasant experiences, whether social or nonsocial. |
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Term
| Impassivity not related to Extraversion |
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Definition
| Also relevant to this issue is evidence from research with monkeys. One study (Fairbanks, 2001) found that social dominance, which many see as part of extra- version, relates to moderate impulsivity—not high or low. On the whole, evidence suggests that impulsivity does not belong in extraversion. |
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Term
| Sensation Seeking (A biologically based dimension of personality) |
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Definition
| Many people believe that there’s at least one more biologically based dimension of personality. It has had several labels, but in each case, the construct has incorporated a quality of planfulness versus impulsivity. One label for this dimension is sensation seeking. |
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Term
| impulsive unsocialized sensation seeking (IUSS) |
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Definition
A broader view of this trait’s function relates it to the demands of social living. Zuckerman (1991, 1993) thinks that what he calls impulsive unsocialized sensation seeking (IUSS) concerns the capacity to inhibit behavior in service of social adapta- tion. People high on IUSS don’t do this very well. IUSS relates inversely to sociability and positively to aggressiveness (Zuckerman, 1996; Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Joireman, Tetar, & Kraft, 1993). It’s been implicated in antisocial personality disorder
IUSS relates inversely to both agreea- bleness and conscientiousness of the five-factor model (Zuckerman, 1996) and to constraint from Tellegen’s (1985) model (constraint being virtually the opposite of IUSS).
The temperament called effortful control bears a good deal of resemblance to IUSS. It’s about being focused and restrained, and it implies a planfulness and awareness of others’ needs. High levels of this temperament early in life predict fewer problems with antisocial behavior later on |
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Term
| monoamine oxidase (MAO) (maybe linked to serotonin) |
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Definition
Is a particular brain chemical tied to impulse versus constraint? Zuckerman (1994, 1995) suggested a role for monoamine oxidase (MAO), which helps regulate several neurotransmitters. MAO levels relate to personality traits such as sensation seeking and novelty seeking
On the other hand, some researchers consider MAO level to be mostly an indica- tor of the activity of neurons of the serotonin system (Oreland, 2004). Perhaps the key actually lies in serotonin function.There is, in fact, a good deal of evidence linking low serotonin function to impulsivity
findings suggest that low serotonin func- tion made people act more the way they tend to be anyway.That would fit with the idea that low serotonin means loosening restraint of one’s basic tendencies. |
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Term
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Definition
| All effects that emerged did so only among men. Low serotonin function related to greater life history of aggression and impulsiveness, consistent with previous results. Low serotonin function also related to higher neuroticism (from the NEO-PI-R) and the neuroticism facet angry hostility. High serotonin function related to higher conscientiousness (from the NEO-PI-R). |
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Term
| Babies and exposure to hormones |
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Definition
| The findings are somewhat mixed, but they appear generally consistent with the idea that early exposure to masculinizing hormones can influence behavior. It can increase the potential for aggression, lead to preference for masculine toys, and enhance boldness. |
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Term
Tend and Befriend (Women)
(men more.. fight or flight response) |
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Definition
This system involves a hormone called oxytocin. It acts to relax and sedate (e.g., Light et al., 2000), to reduce fear, and to enhance mother–infant bonding (Feldman, Weller, Zagoory-Sharon, & Levine, 2007). Both males and females have this hormone, but females seem to have more of it. Further, androgens inhibit its release under stress, and estrogen increases its effects
Greater partner support relates to higher levels of oxytocin (Grewen, Girdler, Amico, & Light, 2005).There’s also evidence that receiving a jolt of oxytocin causes people to experience an increase in trust, a willingness to take on risks in the context of a social bond with a stranger |
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Term
| fMRI and other brain scans |
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Definition
| People are being studied to assess levels of activation in various brain structures, both at rest and in other mental states.The picture from this sort of study, called functional MRI (fMRI), is much more detailed than what comes from EEG recordings. Of particular importance is that it lets the brain be viewed in slices at different levels.The result is a very detailed three-dimensional picture about what brain centers are active during the scan. As with PET scans, the images are usually created in multiple colors, with each color representing a different level of activity. |
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Term
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Definition
Another problem that’s often discussed in terms of biological systems is antisocial per- sonality.As noted earlier, this personality involves impulsivity and an inability to restrain antisocial urges. It’s often argued that people with this personality have an overactive BAS
Thus, they pursue whatever incentive comes to mind. It’s also sometimes argued that they have deficits in the threat system (Fowles, 1980).Thus, they fail to learn from punishment or aren’t motivated to avoid i |
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Term
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Definition
| index of antisocial behavior among men with a gene causing low MAO (high antisocial behaviour) and men with a gene for normal MAO (low to normal antisocial behaviour) who had experienced either no maltreatment (abuse) during child- hood, probably some maltreatment, or severe maltreatment |
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Term
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Definition
It’s now often argued that personality rests on an approach system (BAS) that responds to incentives and an avoidance system that responds to threats.
The threat system seems to represent the biological basis for the trait of neuroticism. Some researchers suggest that the BAS represents the biological basis for extraversion |
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Term
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Definition
| Sensation seeking relates to Eysenck’s psychoticism dimension and Tellegen’s constraint dimension, and both relate to the temperament of effortful control.Variation in these qualities may be grounded in differences in the functions that cause people to take into account other people and long-term goals. |
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Term
| Levels of threat sensitivity activity |
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Definition
| With regard to problems in behavior, high levels of threat sensitivity activity promote disorders involving anxiety. Either a high threat response or a low approach response may contribute to depression. High approach–low avoidance can yield symptoms of antisocial personality, which also relates to impulsive sensation seeking and testosterone.This orientation to personality suggests that therapy based, in part, on medication is a means to bring about behavioral chang |
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Term
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Definition
- Anabolic steroids Chemicals that mimic the body’s tendency to rebuild muscle tissues.
- Antisocial personality A person who displays impulsive action with little thought to consequences.
- Avoidance or withdrawal system The part of the brain that regulates responses to punishment.
- Behavioral approach system (BAS) The part of the brain that regulates pursuit of incentives.
- Dopamine A neurotransmitter believed to be especially important to approach regulation.
- Electroencephalogram (EEG) A record of overall electrical activity in higher regions of the brain. |
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Term
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Definition
- Functional MRI (fMRI) Use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to create a picture of activity inside the brain in different mental states.
- GABA A substance, low levels of which appear to be linked to anxiety disorders.
- Impulsive unsocialized sensation seeking (IUSS) A trait involving the capacity to inhibit behavior in the service of social adaptation.
- Incentives Things that people desire.
- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) A picture of activity inside the brain based on the brain’s electro- magnetic energy |
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Term
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Definition
- Monamine oxidase (MAO) A substance that helps regulate several neurotransmitters and seems to be involved in constraint over impulses.
- Neurotransmitter A chemical involved in sending messages along nerve pathways.
- Norepinephrine A neurotransmitter that some researchers believe is important in anxiety responses.
- Oxytocin A hormone that appears to be important in social bonding.
- Pharmacotherapy A therapy based on use of medication |
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Term
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Definition
- Positron emission tomography (PET) A picture of activity in the brain based on the brain’s metabolism.
- Sensation seeking The tendency to seek out varied, unusual, and exciting stimuli.
- Serotonin A neurotransmitter that some research- ers believe is involved in anxiety and others believe is involved in constraint over impulses.
- Testosterone A male sex hormone that influences a wide range of behaviors |
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Term
| behavioral approach system (BAS) A.K.A activation system behavioral engagement system, and behavioral facilitation system |
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Definition
The structures involved in approach behavior have been given several names: activation system behavioral engagement system, behavioral facilitation system (Depue & Iacono, 1989), and behavioral approach system (BAS) . You might think of this system as regulating the psychic gas pedal, moving you toward what you want. It’s a “go” system—a reward-seeking system
This set of brain structures is presumed to be involved whenever a person is pursuing an incentive. |
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Term
| left-prefrontal activation and BAS sensitivity |
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Definition
| Recent evidence suggests that what underlies left-prefrontal activation is not positive feelings per se but something else about the approach process. Sometimes, a desire to approach is thwarted. In this case, the approach system is engaged, but the emotions—frustration and anger—have a negative valence, rather than a positive one. Several studies have linked such experiences to left-prefrontal activation and BAS sensitivity |
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Term
| incentive reactivity through BAS (more vs less reactivity) |
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Definition
| For example, suppose two people have tickets to an upcoming concert by a band they like. Melanie gets excited just thinking about the concert (although it isn’t until next week). Every time she does, she’s ready to jump in the car. Melanie is very high in incentive reactivity, BAS sensitivity. Barbara, on the other hand, is more calm. She knows she’ll enjoy the concert, but she’s not so responsive to thoughts of potential reward. Barbara has less incentive reactivity. |
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Term
left-prefrontal areas (Happy) +
right prefrontal areas (anxiety or aversion) |
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Definition
Once again, research on cortical activity is consistent with this general view.We said earlier that left-prefrontal areas are more active when people are happy. Right- prefrontal areas are more active when people are feeling anxiety or aversion—for example, when viewing film clips that induce fear and disgust
argue that anxiety relates to a behavioral withdrawal system, which involves the right prefrontal cortex |
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Term
| Extraversion (is sociability the core of extraversion? Some say yes, other no). |
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Definition
| On the other hand, several projects seem to suggest that sociality per se is not the core of extraversion. One of these projects was by Lucas, Diener, Grob, Suh, and Shao (2000).Their studies led them to conclude that the core of extraversion is reward sensitivity and the tendency to experience positive affect.They inferred that extraverts’ social tendencies stem from the fact that social interaction is one source of positive experiences. Indeed, Lucas and Diener (2001) found extraverts were drawn to situa- tions that offered opportunities for pleasant experiences, whether social or nonsocial. |
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Term
| Impulsivity in Extraversion? (maybe belonging to A Third Dimension: Sensation Seeking, Constraint, and Effortful Control) |
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Definition
| Many say impulsivity doesnt belong in extraversion --> Many people believe that there’s at least one more biologically based dimension of personality. It has had several labels, but in each case, the construct has incorporated a quality of planfulness versus impulsivity. One label for this dimension is sensation seeking |
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Term
| Testosterone and Adult Personality (and low SES) (also links to trait of impulsiveness) |
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Definition
Testosterone is a sex hormone, but research on its behavioral effects has focused more on dominance and antisocial behavior than sexual behavior. One study of men in prison (Dabbs, Frady, Carr, & Besch, 1987) found that inmates high in testosterone had violated prison rules more often and were more dominant than those lower in testosterone.
Not only can having low SES increase the ill effects of high testosterone, but high testosterone tends to lead men into lower-SES occupations (Dabbs, 1992a). This seems to occur because high testosterone promotes antisocial behavior and disruption of education. |
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Term
| Women (tend and befriend) |
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Definition
| Tending refers to calming offspring.This protects them from harm.That is, if they don’t cry, they (and you) fade into the background, where the threat is less. By exten- sion, you do the same for close adults who are stressed. By soothing them, you put them into a situation of less threat. Befriending means affiliating and bonding with others.This reduces certain kinds of risk (because there’s greater safety in numbers) and increases the chances of receiving tending from each other when needed |
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Term
| Biological Bases of Anxiety and Depression (approach of incentives and avoidance of threats) (2 of the 3 systems) |
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Definition
The avoid- ance system creates anxiety in the presence of cues of impending punishment. A person with a very sensitive threat system will experience anxiety easily and fre- quently.
If these people are exposed to frequent punishment during childhood, they learn anxiety responses to many stimuli.The result may be the development of such clinical symp- toms as phobias, panic attacks, and obsessive–compulsive disorders |
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Term
| 3 Systems (approach of incentives avoidance of threats, and effortful control) |
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Definition
| Both problems—anxiety and depression—are likely to be worse if the person also has deficits in the third system: the one that corresponds to constraint or effortful control (Carver et al., 2008). When that system isn’t operating effectively, emotions feel more intense and demanding, and it’s harder for the person to escape from them |
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Term
| antisocial per- sonality (Overactive BAS + ..deficit in threat sensitivity + low MAO) |
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Definition
antisocial per- sonality.As noted earlier, this personality involves impulsivity and an inability to restrain antisocial urges. It’s often argued that people with this personality have an overactive BAS
It’s also sometimes argued that they have deficits in the threat system (Fowles, 1980).Thus, they fail to learn from punishment or aren’t motivated to avoid it.
genes causing low MAO engaged in more antisocial behavior |
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Term
| Medication in Therapy (pharmacotherapy) |
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Definition
As it turns out, drugs that remove the symptoms of schiz- ophrenia also lower the levels of usable dopamine in the brain. Apparently, the effectiveness of these drugs is related to their ability to block dopamine use.
Antianxiety drugs are among the most often prescribed of all medica- tions. Current antidepressants—selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)—are used by many people with moderate to mild depression. |
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Term
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Definition
- Eysenck’s theory that brain processes underlie extraversion and neuroticism. He argued that introverts are more cortically aroused than extraverts and that people high in neuroticism are emotionally aroused.
- Other It’s now often argued that personality rests on an approach system (BAS) that responds to incentives and an avoidance system that responds to threats.Work on emotions suggests that the approach system involves (in part) the left prefrontal cortex and that the withdrawal system involves (in part) the right prefrontal cortex.The threat system seems to represent the biological basis for the trait of neuroticism. Some researchers suggest that the BAS represents the biological basis for extraversion. |
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Term
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Definition
- another biological system is responsible for variations in impulsiveness and sensation seeking (the tendency to seek out novel, complex, and exciting stimuli). Sensation seeking relates to Eysenck’s psychoticism dimension and Tellegen’s constraint dimension, and both relate to the temperament of effortful control.
- Another aspect of the biological view on personality focuses on the influences of hormones on behavior. Exposure to male hormones before birth can cause people years later to choose more aggressive responses to conflict and can increase girls’ pref- erence for boys’ toys.Testosterone in adults relates to dominance behavior, sometimes expressed in antisocial ways. |
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Term
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Definition
| - oxytocin, is important in human social behavior. Oxytocin appears to relate to female responses to stress, termed a tend-and-befriend response.The roots of this response may be in the attachment system, and it may relate to social bonding more generally. |
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Term
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Definition
| With regard to problems in behavior, high levels of threat sensitivity activity promote disorders involving anxiety. Either a high threat response or a low approach response may contribute to depression. High approach–low avoidance can yield symptoms of antisocial personality, which also relates to impulsive sensation seeking and testosterone.This orientation to personality suggests that therapy based, in part, on medication is a means to bring about behavioral change.The idea is that medi- cation can influence the underlying biological system, thereby altering the person’s behavior and subjective experience. |
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