Term
| The psychoanalytic perspective is similar to at least three alternative views. 1 of 2 |
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Definition
| First, ideas about evolution in the species parallel Freud's ideas about the evolution of personality in the individual. That is, in each case, a primitive force (the genes, the id) needs another force to help it deal with reality (the cortex, the ego), and eventually it also needs a force to keep it in contact with the social world (inherited sensitivity to social influence, the superego). |
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Term
| The psychoanalytic perspective is similar to at least three alternative views. 2 of 2 |
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Definition
| Second, the psychoanalytic view and the self-regulation view resemble each other in that the notion of a hierarchy of control echoes psychoanalytic theory's three components of personality. Third, work from the cognition viewpoint on unconscious influences has resulted in concepts that resemble, in some ways, those postulated years earlier by Freud. |
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Term
| Other similarities 1 of 2 |
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Definition
A substantial overlap exists between the social learning, the cognitive, and the self-regulation viewpoints. They share an emphasis on mental representations of the world, although the theories have somewhat different rationales for the emphasis. They also have similar views of the importance of people's expectancies and similar views on the basic structure of behaviour.
A similarity also exists between the notion of a hierarchy in self-regulation and Maslow's ideas about motives. Although the lower levels of Maslow's motive hierarchy deal with motives that are ignored in the control hierarchy, at their upper levels, the models resemble each other more closely. The principle of self-actualisation also resembles the self-regulation model in the concepts of ideal and actual self and the desire for congruity between them. |
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Term
| Other similarities 2 of 2 |
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Definition
Another similarity is the notion of disposition. This construct is central to the trait perspective and also important in the psychoanalytic and social views. In all these cases the assumption is made that people have qualities that endure over time and circumstances and that influence their behaviours, thoughts, and feelings.
Although the various theories differ in their focus, certain issues do seem to recur across many of them. This represents another kind of similarity among the theories. One issue that many different theories address is the polarity between impulse and restraint. Indeed, this issue has become increasingly prominent in recent years. Another is the competing pressures of individual self-interest and communal interest. |
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Term
| (305-320) Psychoanalysis and Evolutionary Psychology: The Structural Model |
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Definition
- the evolutionary view sees behavior as self-serving (with one exception, to which we turn momentarily).This self-serving quality resembles the selfish nature of Freud’s concept of the id.The id is primitive and single minded about its desires.
- Evolution of the cortex in humans would parallel evolution of the ego in the person. Both structures—cortex and ego— permit greater planfulness and care in decision making. Both are adaptations that foster survival.
- a superego confers an evolutionary advantage for living and surviving in groups. People who adopt and conform to the values of their social group will be accepted as members of the group.They will be more likely to get the benefits that follow from group membership (for example, having other members take care of you if you’re sick). Clearly, these benefits have survival value. |
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Term
| Psychoanalysis and Evolutionary Psychology: The Structural Model (SUMMARY) |
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Definition
| In sum,Leak and Christopher (1982) suggested that the ego (conscious rationality) is a behavioral management system, for which the id and the superego provide moti- vation.There are two types of motivation—selfish and group-related—with adaptive value.The id adapts to the physical environment, where competition for resources is intense and selfish.The superego comprises the tendencies that evolved in response to pressures from group living |
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Term
| Psychoanalysis and Evolutionary Psychology: Fixations and Mating Patterns |
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Definition
Freuds Views: the Oedipal conflict and the fixations that can emerge from it. For a male, fixation in the phallic stage is said to cause an exaggerated attempt to show that he hasn’t been castrated. He does this by having sex with as many women as possible and by seeking power and status. Female fixation in this stage involves a seductiveness that doesn’t necessarily lead to sex.
The male mating tactic is to create the appearance of power and status and to mate as frequently as possible.The female tactic is to appear highly desirable but to hold out for the best mate available.These tactics have strong echoes in the fixations just described.W |
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Term
| Psychoanalysis and Self-Regulation: Hierarchy and the Structural Model |
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Definition
The psychoanalytic approach to personality also has certain similarities to the self-reg- ulation view. One similarity derives from the notion of a self-regulatory hierarchy.
Consider the spontaneity and responsiveness to situational cues in the self-regulation model when high-level control isn’t being exerted.This resembles aspects of id functioning.An obvious difference is Freud’s assumption that id impulses are primarily sexual or aggressive.
there’s quite a strong resemblance between program control in the self-regulation approach and ego functioning in the psychoanalytic approach. Program control involves planning, decision making, and behavior that’s pragmatic, as opposed to either impulsive or principled.These qualities also characterize the ego’s functioning. Levels higher than program control resemble, in some ways, the functioning of the superego. Principle control, in at least some cases, induces people to conform to moral principles. Control at the highest level involves an effort to conform to your idealized sense of self. |
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Term
| Psychoanalysis and Cognitive Processes |
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Definition
As implied by this description, today’s cognitive view assumes that much of the mind’s functioning is unconscious. Indeed, the study of unconscious processes is a very active area of work (Hassin, Uleman, & Bargh, 2005). Today’s cognitive view tends to equate consciousness with attention. Events that are unconscious are those that get little or no attention.
Sometimes events are unconscious because some behaviors are highly automatic. Acts that are automatic require little or no monitoring. |
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Term
| Another body of work has linked cognitive processes to the psychoana- lytic concept of transference. |
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Definition
Transference occurs when a person in therapy dis- places emotional reactions onto the therapist.
As a result, you
may view many people through the lens of that schema and not even realize it. If some- one does something that reminds you vaguely of your mother’s way of inducing guilt, it may evoke your mother schema and make you perceive that person as being like your mother.
Thus, if someone tends to induce guilt as your mother did, you may react just as you did to your mother (e.g., by becoming irrationally angry), even if the reaction isn’t appropriate to the present situation. All this can happen in therapy—or anywhere. |
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Term
| Social Learning, Cognitive, and Self-Regulation Views |
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Definition
Mischel (1973) said that if we want to understand learning, we have to look at people’s mental representations of stimuli, not the stimuli themselves. People learn from what
they think is there, not what an outsider sees. The way the stimuli are mentally rep- resented and transformed determines how people will respond to them.
From the cognitive view on personality, Mischel (1973) focused not on the subtleties of learning but on how people organize their understanding. Note the difference of emphasis. In the cognitive view, the idea that people organize their experience is a key principle regarding the essence of personality. Learning per se is more peripheral. Cognitive processes are also critical to the self- regulation view on personality, although once again there’s a difference of emphasis. The focus in the self-regulation approach is mostly on the role cognitions play in creating behavior. |
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Term
| Maslow’s Hierarchy and Hierarchies of Self-Regulation |
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Definition
There are two similarities between Maslows hierarchy and the self-regulation hierarchy.
First, Maslow conceived of the motive qualities at the top of the hierarchy not only as more abstract and subtle, but also as more integrative, than those at lower levels.The levels of the hierarchy of control also have this character. Second, Maslow saw the lower motives as more demanding than the higher ones, in the sense that a deficit or a problem lower in the hierarchy draws the person’s attention to it and forces him or her to deal with it.Similarly,in at least one version of the self-regulatory hierarchy, if a problem develops at a low level, attention is brought to that level in an attempt to resolve the problem.
The biggest difference concerns the content of the hierarchies. Maslow’s analysis was explicitly an analysis of motives intended to incorporate both biological needs and psychological motives.The control hierarchy, in contrast, focuses on the structure of action with goals that relate to qualities of behavior.This difference means that the two hierarchies are very different at their low levels.
At higher levels, though, the two hierarchies are more similar.The highest level of control in the self-regulation view seems roughly equivalent to the concept of self-actualization used by Maslow and Rogers. |
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Term
| Self-Actualization and Self-Regulation |
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Definition
One similarity is that both view- points use concepts corresponding to idealized and experienced qualities of self.The labels real self and ideal self are explicit in the view of Rogers.The sense of an idealized self is also one value at the top of the control hierarchy, as is the experienced actual self that’s compared with it.
Rogers emphasized that people compare their current selves with their ideal selves and that they experience anxiety when there’s incongruity between them.The comparison between a sensed condition and a standard, or reference point, is also intimately involved in the self-regulation perspective, not only with respect to an ideal self but at all levels of the hierarchy. |
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Term
| Traits and Their Equivalents in Other Models |
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Definition
A major theme of personality psychology is how people differ from one another, not just temporarily but in enduring ways.
The psychoanalytic view assumes that people derive stable personality qualities from childhood psychosexual crises. In the social perspec- tive, Erikson assumed that childhood psychosocial crises shape adult personality, and object relations and attachment theories make similar assumptions.
Although these theories differ regarding the sources of dispositions, they share two assumptions: that something is stamped onto or etched into the individual early in life and that this characteristic continues to influence the person from then on.The disposition has been viewed as a biological temperament, a transformation of sexual drives, a reflection of a psychosocial crisis, a learned motive quality, and simply a trait. |
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Term
Impulse and Restraint 1 of 2
(Recurrent Themes, Viewed from Different Angles) |
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Definition
| It is often introduced in the context of delay of gratification, where a choice must be made between receiv- ing a small reward now or a larger reward later.We’ve discussed that phenomenon from several viewpoints: psychoanalysis (where we said the ego restrains the id’s impulses), social learning theory (where we considered effects of models), and the cognitive perspective (where the focus was on mental images that can foster restraint). |
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Term
Impulse and Restraint 2 of 2
(Recurrent Themes, Viewed from Different Angles) |
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Definition
As a result, its broader mani- festations emerge in many views of personality:
• It’s there in trait psychology, in which a trait of conscientiousness is assumed to be defined partly by self-discipline and deliberation (McCrae & Costa, 1987). Indeed, another trait theory treats constraint as a basic dimension of personality (Tellegen, 1985).
• It comes up in temperament theories, where some argue that constraint is, in fact, a basic temperament (Clark & Watson, 1999) and others argue for a similar temperament that’s been called effortful control (Rothbart et al., 2003).
• It’s found in biological process models, where an argument is made that approach and avoidance systems are joined by a system that concerns restraint versus impulsiveness (Carver & Miller, 2006; Depue & Spoont, 1986; Eysenck & Eysenck, 1976; Zuckerman, 2005).
• It’s a core issue in psychoanalysis, concerning the balance between the id’s desires in many domains and the ego’s restraint over how and when those desires are met.
• It’s there in cognitive theories, in the form of a contrast between rational and experiential systems (Epstein, 1994) and in a contrast between “hot,” incentive-related cognition and “cool,” restrained cognition (Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999).
• It also appears in self-regulation theories, in the distinction between deliberative and implemental mindsets
,this issue is one that’s led a number of people to think seriously about cognitive processing occurring in two modes. (Dual-Process |
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Term
Individual versus Group Needs 1 of 2
(Recurrent Themes, Viewed from Different Angles) |
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Definition
This issue is tangled up with the issue of action versus restraint.This is because recognizing other people’s needs is often what urges restraining one’s own impulses. Conceptually, however, it’s a separate issue.
psychoanalytic theory and evolutionary psychology both confront the contrast between these pressures. In psychoanalysis, the ego deals with the immediate demands of both social and physical reality and the super- ego deals with other more complex aspects of social needs. In evolutionary psychology, people have individualistic needs—survival, competition for mates. But they also have group-based needs—cooperation with one’s mate and with the larger society
In trait psychology, it emerges in two places. One is the trait of agreea- bleness, which concerns maintaining positive relations with others. People high on this dimension are attuned to mutual well-being; those lower on the dimension are unconcerned with others’ interests.The distinction also emerges in the trait of extra- version. Extraverts want to have social impact, whereas introverts are less concerned with group involvement and follow more individualistic paths. |
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Term
Individual versus Group Needs 2 of 2
(Recurrent Themes, Viewed from Different Angles) |
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Definition
In the motive approach, this issue shows up in the motives to achieve and exert power versus affiliate and attain intimacy. In the biological process approach, this issue appears in unsocialized sensation seeking, with its disregard of others’ needs. It’s in the psychosocial approach, in the issue of separation–individuation versus merger. It’s in the self-actualization approach, in the balance between the self-actualizing tendency and the need for positive regard from other people.
In all these cases, people confront the need to balance the two competing pressures. Both pressures are important but in different ways |
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Term
Eclecticism
(Combining Perspectives) |
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Definition
drawing useful ideas from many theories, rather than being tied to just one or two. Essentially, it means saying that different ideas are useful for different purposes and that there may be no approach that’s best for all purposes.
For example, most personality psychologists today accept the idea that personality was shaped by evolutionary pressures. Most assume that there are inherited tempera- ments and that the processes by which personality is reflected are biological. Several ideas from psychoanalytic theory are also widely accepted––for example, that determi- nants of behavior are sometimes outside awareness and that mechanisms exist within the mind that protect us from things we don’t want to think about. Many personality psychologists accept that early experiences have a big impact on what people are like. Obviously,learning has an influence on personality,yet people seem to organize records of the experiences of their lives in idiosyncratic ways.We may well have an inner voice of self-actualization. Behavior may even reflect the operation of feedback loop |
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Term
| An Example: Biology and Learning as Complementary Influences on Personality |
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Definition
A key point is that some associations are learned more easily than others.The term used to describe this is preparedness.This term implies that organisms are prepared to learn certain connections more easily than others (Öhman & Mineka, 2001; Seligman & Hager, 1972). Preparedness isn’t all or nothing. It’s a continuum of ease versus difficulty in learning connections. Presumably, this is biologically influenced.
diathesis–stress models, in which a particular kind of stress produces a problem only if the person also has a particular vulnerability (which might be biological, though it doesn’t have to be). Such models are widely accepted |
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Term
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Definition
| The psychoanalytic perspec- tive is similar to at least three alternative views. First, ideas about evolution in the species parallel Freud’s ideas about the evolution of personality in the individual.That is, in each case, a primitive force (the genes, the id) needs another force to help it deal with reality (the cortex, the ego), and eventually it also needs a force to keep it in con- tact with the social world (inherited sensitivity to social influence, the superego).There are also similarities between Freud’s picture of fixations from the Oedipal crisis and the mating tactics that evolutionary theorists posit for males and females. Second, the psy- choanalytic view and the self-regulation view resemble each other in that the notion of a hierarchy of control echoes psychoanalytic theory’s three components of personality. Third, work from the cognitive viewpoint on unconscious influences has resulted in concepts that resemble, in some ways, those postulated years earlier by Freud. |
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Term
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Definition
A substantial overlap exists among the social learning, the cognitive, and the self-regulation viewpoints.They share an emphasis on mental representations of the world, although they have somewhat different rationales for the emphasis.They also have similar views of the importance of people’s expectancies and similar views on the basic structure of behavior
A similarity also exists between the notion of a hierarchy in self-regulation and Maslow’s ideas about motives.Although the lower levels of Maslow’s motive hierarchy deal with motives that are ignored in the control hierarchy, at their upper levels, the models resemble each other more closely.The principle of self-actualization also resembles the self-regulation model in the concepts of ideal and actual self and the desire for congruity between them. |
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Term
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Definition
Another similarity among approaches concerns the notion of disposition.This construct is central to the trait perspective, and it’s also important in the psychoana- lytic and social views. In all these cases (and by implication in others, as well), the assumption is made that people have qualities that endure over time and circum- stances and that influence their behaviors, thoughts, and feelings.
Although the various theories differ in their focus, certain issues do seem to recur across many of them.This represents another kind of similarity among the theo- ries. One issue that many different theories address is the polarity between impulse versus restraint. Indeed, this issue has become increasingly prominent in recent years. Another is the competing pressures of individual self-interest and communal interest. |
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Term
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Definition
Thus, there are areas of overlap among theories.Yet the theories also differ.Which theory, then, is right? One answer is that all the perspectives seem to have something of value to offer. Maybe the value of each viewpoint depends on what part of the per- son’s life you are focusing on. Many psychologists prefer an eclectic position, taking elements and ideas from several views, rather than just one.
At a minimum, people who operate within the framework of a given theory must take into account the limitations imposed by evidence generated by other views. For example, temperament theorists believe much of personality is determined by genetics, but they also understand that temperaments are modified by learning. Learning theo- rists believe that personality is a product of a learning history, but it’s clear that some kinds of learning are easier than others. Perhaps the future will see greater emphasis on this eclecticism—the sharing of ideas from one perspective to another. |
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Term
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Definition
- Perceptual Defence - Screening out a threatening stimulus before it enters awarenes
- Preparedness The idea that some conditioning is easy, because the animal is biologically prepared for it to happen. |
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Term
| Watch Video and fill out word file. |
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