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African American men with the disease were told their disease was being treated but the progress of the disease was simply being measured
3 ethical violations: men were harmed (not told cure); not treated respectfully (lied to, no informed consent); targeted disadvantaged social group (poor African Americans) |
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| Milgram's Obedience Study |
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| Respect for Person, Beneficence, and Justice. |
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| Stanford Prison Experiment |
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| by Phillip Zimbardo, led to APA ethics code |
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| APA Ethics Code (American Psychological Association) |
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| 5 general ethical principles: Aspirational - Beneficence & nonmaleficence; fidelity & responsibility; integrity; justice; respect for people's rights & dignity |
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| 10 Specific ethical standards |
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| an average of all the possible item-total correlations |
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| Descriptions or predictions that are so general or ambiguous that they could apply to almost anybody, thereby indicating a lack of validity |
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| Subjective Forms of Validity |
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Face Validity: does it look like a good measurement.
Content Validity: does it include all the important components of the construct |
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| Empirically Derived Validity |
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Concurrent Validity: does your measure correlate with a relevant outcome right now?
Predictive Validity: does your measure correlate with a relevant outcome in the future
Convergent Validity: does your measure strongly correlate with measures of similar constructs
Divergent Validity: does your measure NOT correlate with measures of dissimilar constructs |
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| Reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity |
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Forced-choice Format: pick best of 2 options
Likert Scale: 5 responses ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree
Semantic Differential Format: number scale anchored by contrasting adjectives |
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| wording that makes things confusing |
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when a respondant adopts a consistent way of answering all questions that has little to do with their sincere opinions.
Examples: Yea-saying, nay-saying, fence-sitting |
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| Observational Research (Types) |
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| Naturalistic Observation & Systematic Observation |
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Goal is to accurately describe behaviors and events in a natural setting
Pros: data collection reflect's person's normal environment (external validity, real-world application)
Cons: privacy violation, participation vs non-participation, possible reactivity, how to ensure observations are objective |
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| Withhold information until participant agrees |
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the goal is accurate observation of targeted behavior in a specific setting
3 Properties: interested only in specific behaviors, quantifiable, hypothesis-driven
3 ways of sampling: Time sampling, event sampling, and situation sampling |
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| record behavior at regular intervals of time (regular or systematic) |
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| recording behavior when it happens |
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| recording behavior across different situations and settings |
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| the group of all individuals a researcher is interested in (ex. fifth grade children) |
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| the ACTUAL population of individuals from which the sample is drawn (ex. list of all fifth grade children in CA) |
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| a subset of the population.Purpose is to estimate the response of the total population without having to survey everyone |
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| Representative Sampling Methods |
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| Probability sampling, cluster sampling, multistage sampling, and stratified random sampling |
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| any method of sampling that used some form of random selection. Each person has an equal chance of being chosen, simple random sampling |
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| clusters of participants are randomly chosen from the population, and then data is collected from each participant in all the clusters |
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| random sample of clusters taken, THEN a random sample of people within the clusters |
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| Stratified random sampling |
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aka proportional or quota sampling. divide the population into demographic subgroups THEN take a random sample from each subgroup that mirror the proportion in the population
Oversampling - intentionally over representing one or more groups
Systematic Sampling - counting off to achieve a sample (ex. every 4th) |
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| Unrepresentative (biased) sampling methods |
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| Self-selected, convenience, purposive, |
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| those most readily available, VERY COMMON in psychological research. More of a problem when trying to represent a population, not a big problem when simply trying to correlate things. Can still achieve internal validity |
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| Researcher selects (nonrandomly) sample of interest, snowball sampling. |
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| asking specific target participants to refer friends. Used to find hard-to-reach or rare samples |
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| to inform participants about a study's nature, details and hypothesis afterward |
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| Research participants' right to learn about a research project, know its risks and benefits, and decide whether to participate |
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an ethical principle from the Belmont report stating that research participants should be treated as autonomous agents and that certain groups deserve special protection.
No COERCION, or UNDUE INFLUENCE |
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| an ethical principle from the Belmont Report stating that researchers must take precautions to protect the participants from harm and to promote participant's well-being |
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| an ethical principle from the Belmont Report calling for a fair balance between the kinds of people who participate in research and the kinds of people who benefit from it |
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| Institutional Review Board (IRB) |
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| a committee responsible for ensuring that research on humans is conducted ethically |
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| the withholding of some details of a study from participants (through OMISSION) or the act of actively lying to them (deception through COMMISSION) |
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| the ethical problem that occurs when researchers invent data that fit their hypothesis |
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| an ethical problem that occurs when researchers influence a study's results, perhaps by deleting observations from a data set or by influencing their research subjects to act in a hypothesized way |
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| the representation of the ideas or words of others as one's own |
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| (aka behavioral measure) a variable measured by recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors |
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| a method of measuring a variable in which people answer questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview |
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| a variable measured by recording biological data |
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| a variable whose levels are categories (ex. male/female) |
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| a variable whose values can be recorded as meaningful numbers |
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| a quantitative measurement scale whose levels represent a ranked order, in which it is unclear whether the distances between levels are equivalent (ex. a 5-star rating scale) |
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| a quantitative measurement scale that has no "true zero" and in which the numerals represent equal intervals (distances) between levels (ex. temperature in degrees) |
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| a quantitative scale of measurement in which the numerals have equal intervals and the value of zero truly means "nothing" (ex. weight) |
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| the consistency of measure |
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| in a measuring instrument that contains several items, the consistency in a pattern of answers, no matter how a question is phrased |
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| the degree to which two or more coders or observers agree in their ratings of a set of targets |
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| the consistency in results every time a measure is used |
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| Correlation Coefficient (r) |
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| a single number ranging fro -1.0 to 1.0, used to indicate the strength and direction of an association |
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| the upward, downward, or neutral slope of the cloud of points in a scatterplot |
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| a description of an associate indicating how closely the data points in a scatterplot cluster along a line of best fit drawn through them |
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| (aka coefficient alpha) a correlation-based statistic that measures a scale's internal reliability |
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| the extent to which a measure is subjectively considered a plausible operationalization of the conceptual variable in question |
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| an empirically supportive type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure is related to a concrete, FUTURE outcome that it should be related to |
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| an empirically supported type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure is related to a concrete, SIMULTANEOUS outcome that it should be related to |
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| the extent to which a measure captures all parts of a defined construct |
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| an empirically supported type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure is associated with other measures of a theoretically similar construct |
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| (aka divergent validity) an empirically supported type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure does not associate strongly with other, theoretically different constructs |
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| a question that allows the respondents to answer in any way they see fit |
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| a question type in which respondents give their opinion by picking the best of two or more options |
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| a scale containing multiple response options that are anchored by terms (strongly disagree - strongly agree). A scale that does not follow this format directly is a "Likert-like scale" |
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| A self-report response scale whose numbers are anchored with constrasting adjectives (ex. easy and hard) |
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| A shortcut respondents may use to answer the items in a self-report measure with multiple items, rather than responding to the content of each item |
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| Acquiescence "yea-saying" |
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| Answering "yes" or "strongly agree" to every item in a questionnaire or interview |
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| Answering "no" or "strongly disagree" to every item in a questionnaire or interview |
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| a situation that occurs when survey respondents play it safe by answering in the middle of the scale for every question in a questionnaire or interview |
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| Socially Desirable Responding |
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| (aka faking good) giving answers to a self-report measure that makes one look better than one really is |
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| a situation that occurs when survey respondents give answers that make them look worse than they really are |
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| the process of watching people or animals and systematically recording what they're doing |
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| a bias that occurs when observer's expectations influence their interpretation of the subject's behavior or the outcome of the study |
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| Masked study design/blind design |
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| a study in which the observers are unaware of the experimental conditions to which participants have been assigned |
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| (aka reactivity) a term referring to people or animals changing their behavior (reacting) because they know another person is watching |
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| an observation made indirectly, through physical traces of behavior, or made by someone who is hidden or is posing as a bystander |
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| a group of people, animals, or cases used in a study |
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| some larger group from which a sample is drawn, which the sample is intended to represent |
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| a set of observations that contain all members of the population of interest |
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| a form of sampling bias that occurs when a sample contains only people who volunteer to participate |
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| the process of drawing a sample from a population of interest in such a way that each member of the population has an equal probability of being included in the sample (ex. randomly) |
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| the most basic form of probability sampling, in which sample is chosen completely at random from the population, perhaps drawing names out of a hat |
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| a sampling method in which researchers randomly select clusters of participants within the population and then collect data from all of the participants in each selected cluster |
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| a method of sampling in which two random samples are taken from some population: a random sample of clusters and then a random sample of people within the clusters |
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| Stratified Random Sampling |
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| a sampling method in which the researcher identifies particular demographic categories of interest and then randomly selects individuals within each of the categories |
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| A version of stratified random sampling in which the researcher intentionally over-represents one or more groups |
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| a method of random sampling in which the researcher counts off to achieve a sample (ex. choosing every nth person in a population, where n is a randomly chosen number |
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| the use of random method (ex. flipping a coin) to assign participants into different experimental groups |
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| choosing a sample based on those who are easiest to access |
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| the inclusion of only certain kinds of people in a sample |
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| a variation on purposive sampling in which participants are asked to recommend acquaintances for the study |
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Replacement: alternative to animals
Refinement: minimize animal distress
Reduction: use as few as possible |
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| Acceptance Level of Reliability |
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