Term
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Definition
| A specific, testable proposition about something they want to study. Hypotheses are precise, clearly worded statements that describe what researchers think may be true and how they will know if it is not. |
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Term
| What is an operational definition - |
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Definition
| Descriptions of the exact operations or methods they will use in their research. Scientists employ these to make it easier to understand and evaluate their hypotheses |
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Term
| What are the goals of research in psychology - |
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Definition
| To describe behavior and mental processes, to make accurate predictions about them, to demonstrate some control over them, and to ultimately explain how and why behavior and mental processes occur. Psychologists tend to use naturalistic observation, case studies, surveys, and correlational studies to describe and predict behavior and mental processes. They use experiments to control and explain behavior and mental processes. |
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Term
| What is a correlational study - |
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Definition
| It examines relationships between variables in order to describe research data more fully, test predictions, evaluate theories, and suggest new hypotheses about why people think and act as they do. One way psychologists evaluate hypotheses is to conduct further correlational studies in which they look for trends in observational, case study, and survey data that support or conflict with those hypotheses. |
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Term
| What kind of research is naturalistic observation - |
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Definition
| An observational method. It is the process of watching without interfering as behavior occurs in the natural environment. This method is especially valuable when more intrusive methods might alter the behavior you want to study or create false impressions about it. |
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Term
| What can and cannot be concluded from correlational research - |
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Definition
| Correlational studies can test predictions, evaluate theories, and study new hypotheses. A pitfall is that they cannot confirm causal relationships between variables. |
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Term
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Definition
| The researcher manipulates one variable and then observes the effect of that manipulation on another variable, while holding all other variables constant. It is the surest way to test hypotheses and confirm cause - and - effect relationships between variables is to exert some control over those variables. |
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Term
| What is an independent variable - |
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Definition
| The variable controlled by the experimenter. It is called independent because the experimenter is free to adjust it at will, offering one, two, or three kinds of treatment, or perhaps setting the length of treatment at one, five, or ten sessions. |
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Term
| What is a dependent variable - |
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Definition
| It is affected by or depends on the independent variable, it is the second variable in an experiment. |
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Term
| What is an experimental confound - |
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Definition
| Anyone who conducts or relies on research must be on guard for flaws in experimental design. Before drawing conclusions from research, experimenters must consider factors that might confound, or confuse, the interpretation of results. Any factor, such as differences in the length of treatment, that might have affected the dependent variable along with or instead of the independent variable can become a confound. When confounds are present, the experimenter cannot know whether the independent or dependent variable or the confound produced the results. There are three kinds of confounds; random variables, participant’s expectations, and experimenter bias. |
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Term
| What is a control group - |
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Definition
| The group that received no treatment |
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Term
| What is random sampling - |
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Definition
| When every member of the population to be studied would have an equal chance of being chosen. Any selection procedure that does not offer this equal chance is said to be biased sampling. Unfortunately, not even truly random sampling will create a perfectly representative sample. |
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Term
| What is random assignment - |
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Definition
| Aka randomizing, a way to assign each research participant to the experimental or control group. Random assignments are presumed to distribute the impact of uncontrolled variables randomly and equally across groups, thus minimizing the chance that these variables will distort the results of the experiment. |
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Term
| What is the placebo effect - |
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Definition
| When improvement occurs as a result of a participant’s knowledge and expectations. A placebo is a treatment that contains nothing known to be helpful but that still produces benefits because the person receiving the treatment believes it will be beneficial. Usually researchers include a special control group that receives only a placebo treatment and then they compare results for the experimental group, the placebo group, and the no - treatment group. |
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Term
| What is a double - blind experimental design - |
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Definition
| In this arrangement, both the research participants and those giving the treatments are unaware of who is receiving a placebo, and they do not know what results are expected from various treatments. Only researchers who have no direct contact with participants have this information, and they do not reveal it until the experiment is over. Experimenters use this to prevent experimenter bias from influencing results. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cells that are specialized to rapidly respond to signals and to quickly send signals of their own. |
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Term
| What are the parts of a neuron - |
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Definition
First, they have an outer membrane that acts like a fine screen, letting some substances pass in and out while blocking others. Second, they have a cell body which contains a nucleus. The nucleus carries the genetic information that determines how well a cell will function. Third, they have a mitochondria which are structures that turn oxygen and glucose into energy. This process is especially vital to brain cells.
What is the function of each part of the neuron - The first is their structure, they all have long thin fibers that extend outwards from the cell body. When these fibers get close to other neurons, communication between the cells can occur. Two types of fibers extend from the cell body. Axons are the fibers that carry signals away from the cell body out to where communication occurs with other neurons. Each neuron generally has only one axon leaving the cell body, but that axon can have many branches. Dendrites are the fibers that receive signals from the axons of other neurons and carry those signals to the cell body. A neuron can have many dendrites and dendrites usually have many branches. The neurons ability to communicate efficiently also depends on two other features: the excitable surface membrane of some of its fibers and the tiny spaces between neurons called synaptic gaps or synapses. |
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Term
| What is the myelin sheath - |
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Definition
| Myelin is a fatty substance that wraps around some axons like a stocking and speeds action potentials. Larger myelinated cells are usually found in parts of the nervous system that carry the most urgently needed information. |
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Term
| What determines whether an action potential is generated in an axon - |
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Definition
| The neuron’s cell membrane is a semipermeable barrier meaning that it lets some chemical ions pass through but blocks others. These ions are atoms that carry a positive or negative electric charge. Normally the cell pumps positively charged ions out through its membrane making the inside of the cell slightly more negative than the outside. In this state the membrane is said to be polarized. Ions with a positive charge are attracted to those with a negative. This attraction creates a force called an electrochemical potential which drives the positive ions toward the inside of the cell. The membrane keeps out many of the positive ions but some are able to enter by passing through special openings called channels. |
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Term
| How is the impulse transmitted down the axon - |
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Definition
| These channels are distributed along the axon and dendrites and act as gates that can be opened or closed. Normally they're closed but changes in the environment around the cell can depolarize the membrane causing the gates in that area to swing open and allow positive ions in. When this happens the next area of the axon becomes depolarized, causing the neighboring gate to open. This sequence continues, creating a wave of changes in electrochemical potential that spreads rapidly down the axon. This sudden wave of changes is called an action potential. When an action potential shoots down an axon the neuron is said to have “fired”. |
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Term
| What is the refractory period - |
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Definition
| Neurons can fire over and over because their membrane gates open only briefly and then close. Between firings there is a very short rest called a refractory period during which the neuron cannot fire. As the positive ions are pumped back outside the membrane the cells returns to its polarized state and when this is complete the neuron can fire again. |
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Term
| Why are action potentials referred to as all or none - |
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Definition
| Action potentials in axons follow the all or none law. The cell either fires at full strength or it doesn’t fire at all. |
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Term
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Definition
| The gap between neurons. For communication to occur between cells, a signal must be transmitted across the synapse. |
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Term
| How is the impulse transmitted across the synapse - |
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Definition
| Usually the axon of one cell delivers its signals across a synapse to the dendrites of a second cell. |
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Term
| What is a neurotransmitter - |
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Definition
| Chemical messengers. These chemicals are usually stored in numerous little bags called vesicles at the tips of axons. |
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Term
| How are neurotransmitters released from the presynaptic neuron - |
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Definition
| When an action potential reaches the end of an axon, a neurotransmitter is released into the synapse where it spread to reach the next or postsynaptic cell. |
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Term
| How are neurotransmitters absorbed by the postsynaptic neuron - |
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Definition
| When neurotransmitters reach the membrane of the postsynaptic cell, neurotransmitters attach to proteins called neural receptors. A neurotransmitter snugly fits or binds to its own receptors but not to receptors for other neurotransmitters. |
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Term
| Why are molecules of neurotransmitter and their receptors explained in terms of an analogy to a lock and key - |
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Definition
| Although each receptor recognizes only one type of neurotransmitter, each neurotransmitter type can bind to several different receptor types. As a result the same neurotransmitter can have different effects depending on the type of receptor to which it binds. |
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Term
| What is an inhibitory postsynaptic potential - |
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Definition
| If positively charged ions flow out of the neuron, or if negative flow in, the neuron becomes slightly more polarized. This hyperpolarization makes it less likely that the neuron will fire an action potential. For this reason a hyperpolarizing postsynaptic potentials is called an inhibitory postsynaptic potential. |
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Term
| What is an excitatory postsynaptic potential - |
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Definition
| The changes that take place in the membrane potential of the postsynaptic cell is called the postsynaptic potential. This change can make the cell either more likely or less likely to fire. I.e. if positive charged ions of chemicals flow into the neuron it becomes slightly less polarized, and because this depolarization of the membrane can lead the neuron to fire an action potential, a depolarizing postsynaptic potential is called an excitatory postsynaptic potential. |
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Term
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Definition
| A drug that mimics the effects of the neurotransmitter that normally binds to a neural receptor. |
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Term
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Definition
| A drug that binds to a receptor and prevents the normal neurotransmitter from binding. |
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Term
| What are the effects of the neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin - |
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Definition
| Dopamine is the neurotransmitter used in the substantia nigra and striatum, which are important for movement. Malfunctioning of the dopamine-using system in these regions contributes to movement disorders including Parkinson’s. Serotonin is similar to norepinephrine. Most of the cells that use it as a neurotransmitter occur in an area along the midline of the hindbrain. Second, axons from neurons that use serotonin send branches through the forebrain, including the hypothalamus, the hippocampus, and the cerebral cortex. Third, serotonin affects sleep and mood. Serotonin differs from norepinephrine in that the brain can get one of the substances from which it is made, tryptophan, directly from food. So what you eat can directly affect the amount of serotonin in your brain. |
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Term
| What is a neural network - |
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Definition
| In the brain and spinal cord, neurons are organized into groups called neural networks. Many neurons in a network are closely connected, sending axons to the dendrites of many other neurons in the network. Signals from one network also go to other networks and small networks are organized into bigger collections. |
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Term
| What is the central nervous system - |
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Definition
| Consists of the brain and spinal cord which are encased in bone for protection. Like The CEO in a company, the CNS receives information, processes it, and determines what actions should result. Neural network models are neatly laid out like computer circuits or the carefully planned streets of a new suburb, but the flesh and blood central nervous system is far more difficult to follow, it looks more like Paris with distinct neighborhoods, winding back streets, and multi laned highways. It’s “neighborhood” are collections of neuronal cell bodies called nuclei made up of axons that travel together in bundles called fiber tracts or pathways |
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Term
| What is the peripheral nervous system - |
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Definition
| Extends throughout the body and like an email or instant messaging service, relays information to and from the brain. The peripheral nervous system has two components each of which performs both sensory and motor functions. The somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. |
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Term
| What is the autonomic nervous system - |
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Definition
| carries signals back and forth between the CNS and the heart, lungs, and other organs and glands. These messages increase or decrease the activity of the organs and glands to meet carrying demands placed on the body. Even though the autonomic nervous system is influenced by the brain, it controls activities that are normally outside of conscious control, such as digestion and perspiration. The autonomic nervous system exercises this control though it’s two divisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches |
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Term
| What are the two principle divisions of the autonomic nervous system - |
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Definition
| The sympathetic and parasympathetic branches. Generally the sympathetic nervous system mobilizes the body for action in the face of stress. The responses that result from this intense activity is collectively referred to as the fight or flight reaction. The parasympathetic nervous system regulates the body’s energy conserving functions. The two branches of the autonomic nervous system often create opposite effects. |
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Term
| What is the fight or flight response and how is it carried out by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems - |
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Definition
| The fight or flight reaction prepares us for action in response to danger or other stress. Generally the sympathetic nervous system mobilizes the body for action in the face of stress. The responses that result from this intense activity is collectively referred to as the fight or flight reaction. The parasympathetic nervous system regulates the body’s energy conserving functions. These two branches often create opposite effects. I.e. the sympathetic nervous system can make your heart beat faster whereas the parasympathetic nervous system slows it down. |
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Term
| What is the spinal reflex - |
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Definition
| Cells of the spinal cord can direct some simple behaviors without instructions from the brain. These behaviors are called reflexes because the response to an incoming signal is directly “reflected” back out. |
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Term
| What kind of information about brain activity is gained through using EEGs - |
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Definition
| One of the earliest techniques called the electroencephalograph (EEG) measures general electrical activity of the brain. Electrodes are pasted on the scalp to detect the electrical fields resulting from the activity of billions of neurons. This tool can associate rapidly changing electrical activity with changes in the activity of the brain, but it cannot tell us exactly where the active cells are. |
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Term
| What is the function of the reticular formation - |
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Definition
| Threading throughout the hindbrain and into the midbrain is a collection of cells that are not arranged in any well-defined nucleus. Because the collection resembles a net it is called the reticular formation. This network is important in altering the activity of the rest of the brain. If the fibers from the reticular system are disconnected from the rest of the brain, a person would enter a permanent coma. Activity of the reticular formation also leads to activity in a small nucleus within it called the locus coeruleus. |
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Term
| What is the function of the hippocampus - |
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Definition
| The hippocampus is important in the formation of memories as becomes evident in certain cases of brain damage. People with damage to the hippocampus may lose the ability to remember new events, a condition called anterograde amnesia. Although the hippocampus is vital in the creation of new memories, it doesn’t hold on to them for long. |
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Term
| What is the function of the limbic system - |
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Definition
| The amygdala and the hippocampus are part of the limbic system. The interconnected structures of this system which also includes the hypothalamus and the septum play important roles in regulating memory and emotion. |
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Term
| What is the function of the amygdala - |
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Definition
| The amygdala associates features of stimuli from two different senses, as when we link the shape and feel of objects in memory. People with PTSD show unusual activity in the amygdala. The amygdala also may influence our sensitivity to other people and the strength of our reactions to their facial expressions. |
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Term
| Which side of the body does each hemisphere of the brain gain information from and which side of the body does each hemisphere of the brain control - |
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Definition
| The left hemisphere receives information from and controls movements of the right side of the body, and the right hemisphere receives input from and controls the left side of the body. However, both sides of the brain perform these functions. |
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Term
| What are the differences in the abilities controlled by the two hemispheres of the brain - |
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Definition
| The left hemisphere has better logical and language abilities than the right, whereas the right hemisphere has better spatial, artistic, and musical abilities. Having two somewhat specialized hemispheres allows the brain to more efficiently perform some tasks, particularly difficult ones, but the differences between the hemispheres should not be exaggerated. The corpus callosum usually integrates the functions of the “two brains” a role that is particularly important in tasks that require sustained attention. As a result, the hemispheres work so closely together and each makes up so well for whatever lack of ability the other may have, that people are normally unaware that their brains are made up of two partly independent, somewhat specialized halves. |
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Term
| What are the four lobes of the brain - |
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Definition
| The frontal lobe, the temporal lobe, the parietal lobe, and the occipital lobe. |
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Term
| What functions are carried out in each of these lobes of the brain - |
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Definition
| The brain's sensory cortex or sensory area lies in the parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes and is the part of the cerebral cortex that receives information from our senses. Different regions of the sensory cortex receive information from different senses. Visual information is received by the visual cortex made up of cells in the occipital lobe, auditory information is received by the auditory cortex made up of cells in the temporal lobe, and information from the skin about touch, pain, and temperature is received in the somatosensory cortex, made up of cells in the parietal lobe. Information about skin sensations from neighboring parts of the body comes to neighboring parts of the somatosensory cortex. Neurons in specific areas of the motor cortex which is in the frontal lobe create voluntary movements in specific parts of the body. Some control movement of the hand, others stimulate movement of the foot, knee, head, etc. |
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Term
| What is the association cortex - |
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Definition
| The parts of the cerebral cortex not directly involved with either receiving specific sensory information or creating movement. These are the areas that perform complex cognitive tasks such as associating words with images. |
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Term
| What is the sensory cortex - |
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Definition
| The brain's sensory cortex or sensory area lies in the parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes and is the part of the cerebral cortex that receives information from our senses. Different regions of the sensory cortex receive information from different senses. |
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Term
| What is the somatosensory cortex - |
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Definition
| Information from the skin about touch, pain, and temperature is received in the somatosensory cortex, made up of cells in the parietal lobe. Information about skin sensations from neighboring parts of the body comes to neighboring parts of the somatosensory cortex. The places on the cortex where information from each area of skin arrives can be represented by the figure of a tiny person stretched out along the cortex. This figure is called the sensory homunculus which is latin for “little man”. The links between skin locations and locations in somatosensory cortex have been demonstrated during brain surgery. If a surgeon stimulates a particular spot on the somatosensory cortex, the patient experiences a touch sensation at the place on the skin that normally sends information to that spot on the cortex. Research has shown that the amount of sensory cortex that responds to particular sensory inputs can be changed by experience. |
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Term
| Why does the cortex appear to be extremely wrinkled - |
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Definition
| The folds of the cortex give the surface of the human brain its wrinkled appearance - the ridges and valleys. The ridges are called gyri and the valleys are called sulci. Several deep dulci divide the cortex into the four different lobes. |
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Term
| What is neural plasticity - |
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Definition
| The remarkable ability of the central nervous system to strengthen neural connections at synapses as well as to establish new connections. Plasticity depends partly on neurons and partly on glial cells and it provides the basis for the learning and memory processes described in other chapters. The connections between brain cells are highly dynamic, changing from week to week, and the strength of the synaptic connections between brain cells can change in a fraction of a second. Plasticity occurs throughout the central nervous system, even the simplest reflex in the spinal cord can be modified by experience. Unfortunately, the power of neural plasticity is limited, especially when it comes to repairing damage to the brain and spinal cord. Unlike the skin or the liver, the adult central nervous system does not automatically replace damaged cells. Still, it does display a certain amount of self-healing. |
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Term
| What is signal detection theory - |
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Definition
| A mathematical model of how each person’s sensitivity and response criterion combine to determine decisions about whether or not a near threshold stimulus has occurred. A psychologist using signal detection theory would analyze your responses to a series of trials on which lights or sounds may or may not be presented. Your response on each trial would be placed into one of four categories: a false alarm, a miss, a hit, or a correct rejection. |
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Term
| What is sensory adaptation - |
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Definition
| A condition in which responsiveness to an unchanging stimulus decreases over time. Sensory adaptation also occurs when you have been in a foul-smelling room for a while. |
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Term
| What is stimulus transduction - |
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Definition
| Information is sent to the CNS. stimulus will be transduced into electrical signals so brain can understand. |
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Term
| What is the principle of topographical representation of the senses? How does it apply in both vision and audition - |
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Definition
| As sensory systems transfer information to the brain, they also organize that information. This organized information is called a representation. The cortex contains neural maps or topographical representations of each sense. These maps are organized so that features that are near each other in the world eventually stimulate neurons that are near each other in the brain. There are multiple maps representing each sense, but the area that receives information directly from the thalamus is called the primary cortex for that sense. |
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Term
| Why are certain areas of the skin more sensitive to touch than other areas - |
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Definition
| The density of nerve fibers in various parts of a sensory system determines how extensively those parts are represented in the cortex. The skin on your finger tip for example has more touch receptors per square inch than the skin on your back does. |
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Term
| How do people hear high frequency and low frequency sounds - |
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Definition
| A sound’s frequency is the number of complete waveforms or cycles that pass by a given point in one second. Frequency is described in a unit called hertz abbreviated Hz. The longer the wavelength, the lower the frequency, the shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency. Most sounds are mixtures of many different frequencies and amplitudes. Pitch, or how high or low a tone sounds, depends on the frequency of sound waves. High frequency waves are sensed as sound of high pitch. Almost everyone hears a relative pitch, that is, people can tell whether one note is higher or lower than or equal to another note. However, some people have absolute pitch or perfect pitch which means they can identify specific frequencies and the notes they represent. |
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Term
| What effect can very loud sounds have on the auditory system - |
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Definition
| Loudness is determined by the amplitude of the sound wave, waves with greater amplitude create sensations of louder sounds. Loudness is described in units called decibels abbreviated dB. A more common problem called nerve deafness results when the acoustic nerve or more commonly the hair cells are damaged. Hair cell damage occurs gradually with age but it can also be caused more quickly by extended exposure to intense sounds. |
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Term
| What relationship exists between frequency and wavelength in audition - |
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Definition
| The distance from one wave peak to the next is called the wavelength. A sound’s frequency is the number of complete waveforms or cycles that pass by a given point in one second. Frequency is described in a unit called hertz abbreviated Hz. The longer the wavelength, the lower the frequency, the shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency. Most sounds are mixtures of many different frequencies and amplitudes. |
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Term
| What relationship exists between sound intensity and loudness - |
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Definition
| Loudness is determined by the amplitude of the sound wave, waves with greater amplitude create sensations of louder sounds. Loudness is described in units called decibels abbreviated dB. |
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Term
| How does dark adaptation occur - |
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Definition
| When light strikes a photopigment, the photopigment breaks apart, changing the membrane potential of the photoreceptor cell. This change in membrane potential generates a signal that can be transferred to the brain. After a photopigment has broken down in response to light, new photopigment molecules are created. This process takes a little time, however. So when you first come from bright sunshine into a dark room you cannot see because your photoreceptors do not yet have enough photopigment. The increasing ability to see in the dark as times passes is called dark adaptation. |
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Term
| What is visual acuity and what part of the visual system produces it - |
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Definition
| The high density of cones in the fovea accounts for the fact that our visual acuity, or ability to see details is greatest in the fovea. |
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Term
| What is lateral inhibition? What role does it play in sensation - |
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Definition
| Incoming light rays must actually pass through several layers of cells in the retina to reach photoreceptor cells. The most direct connections from the photoreceptor cells to the brain go first to bipolar cells and then to ganglion cells. The axons of the ganglion cells extend out of the eye and into the brain in a bundle known as the optic nerve. However this direct pathway is modified by interactions with other cells that change the information reaching the brain. These interactions enhance the sensation of contrast between areas of light and dark. Most of the time the amount of light reaching any two photoreceptors differs slightly, because the edges and other specific features of objects create differing patterns of incoming light. THe receptor that is receiving more light inhibits or reduces the activity of the nearby photoreceptor that is receiving less light. As a result, the brain gets the impression that there is even less light at the nearby cell’s location than there really is. How can one photoreceptor suppress the output of it’s neighbor? The process is called lateral inhibition and it is made possible by interneurons which are cells that make sideways or lateral connections between photoreceptors. The brain is always receiving information about differences in the amount of light that is hitting neighboring photoreceptors. Lateral inhibition serves to exaggerate those differences, and this exaggeration helps us see more clearly. |
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Term
| What is the opponent - process theory of color vision? How is color processed in this theory - |
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Definition
| Edward Hering proposed the opponent-process theory as an alternative to the trichromatic theory of color vision. According to this theory, the color-sensitive elements in the eye are grouped into three pairs and the members of each pair oppose or inhibit each other. There are red-green elements, blue-yellow elements, and black-white elements. Each type of element signals one color or the other but never both. This theory explains after images. When one part of an opponent pair is no longer stimulated, the other is activated (i.e. stare at picture of flag then look at white wall and see different colors). This theory also explains the phenomenon of complementary colors. Two colors are complementary if a neutral color such as great appears when lights of the two colors are mixed. According to this theory, complementary colors stimulate the same visual element in opposite directions, canceling each other out. |
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Term
| What is the trichromatic theory of color vision? How is color processed in this theory - |
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Definition
| Early in the 1800s, Thomas Young and later Hermann von Helmholtz demonstrated that any color could be matched by mixing pure lights of only three wavelengths, This finding led them to conclude that there must be three types of visual elements in the eu, each of which is most sensitive to different wavelengths, and that it is the combined responses of these three elements that produce the sensation of color. This is known as the trichromatic theory of color vision. Support for this theory has come from research on photoreceptor responses to particular wavelengths of light and on the activity of cones in the human eye. This research has revealed that there are three types of cones and each type responses to a broad range of wavelengths, but each is most sensitive to a different range of wavelengths. Short-wavelength cones respond most to light in the blue range. Medium length are most sensitive to light in the green range, and long length respond best to light in the reddish-yellow range. NO single type of cone can signal the color of a light, it is the ratio of responses by the three types of cones that determines the color you see. Color vision is encoded by the pattern of activity of the different cone types. Brilliant as it is, the trichromatic theory alone cannot explain all aspects of color vision. |
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Term
| What is the relationship between frequency and wavelength in vision and between light intensity and brightness - |
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Definition
| Sensations of light depend on two physical dimensions of light waves: intensity and wavelength. Light intensity refers to how much energy the light contains; it determines the brightness of light much as the amplitude of sound waves determines the loudness of sound. What color you see depends mainly on light wavelength. At a given intensity, different wavelengths produce sensations of different colors. |
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Term
| How is pain perceived? What are the physiological and cognitive processes involved - |
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Definition
| Pain provides you with information about the impact of the world on your body. Pain also has a distinctly negative emotional component. REsearchers have focused on the information carrying aspects of pain, its emotional components, and the various ways that the brain can adjust the amount of pain that reaches consciousness. The information-carrying aspect of pain is very similar to that of touch and temperature. THe receptors for pain are free nerve endings. Painful stimuli cause the release of chemicals that fit into specialized receptors in pain neurons, causing them to fire. THe axons of pain sensing neurons release neurotransmitters causing them to fire. The axons of pain-sensing neurons release neurotransmitters not only near the spinal cord, sending information to the brain, but also near the skin, causing local inflammation. Two types of nerve fibers carry pain signals from the skin to the spinal cord. A-delta fibers carry sharp, pricking pain sensations. Their axons are coated with myelin, which speeds the transmission of these sharp pain messages. C fibers carry long-lasting dull aches and burning sensations. Both kinds of pain come from the same place, but the sensations follow separate pain fibers all the way to the brain, where they activate different brain regions. Pain fibers enter the spinal cord, where they form synapses with neurons that carry pain signals to the thalamus and other parts of the brain. |
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Term
| How is a sense of equilibrium maintained and disrupted - |
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Definition
| The sense of equilibrium also called the vestibular sense tells the brain about the position of the head in space and about its general movements. It is a primary component of what people think of as the sense of balance. People usually become aware of their sense of equilibrium only when it is overstimulated and they become dizzy or motion sick. The organs for the sense of equilibrium are two vestibular sacs and three semicircular canals in your inner ears. The vestibular sacs are filled with a thick oily fluid and contain small crystals called otoliths that rest on the ahir endings, THe semicircular canals are fluid-filled, arc-shaped tubes with tiny hairs extending into the fluid. When your head moves, the otoliths shift in the vestibular sacs and the fluid moves in the semicircular canals, stimulating hair endings. These changes activate neurons that travel with the acoustic nerve, informing the brain about the amount and direction of head movement. Nerve cells from the vestibular system connect to several brain regions, including the cerebellum, the part of the autonomic nervous system that affects the digestive system and areas that move the eyes. The connections to the ans are partly responsible for the nausea that sometimes follows intense stimulation of the vestibular system. FInally, the connections to the eye muscles create vestibulo-ocular reflexes. |
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Term
| What is the role of smell in the experience of taste - |
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Definition
| Most of the properties that make food taste good are actually odors detected by the olfactory system. The olfactory and gustatory pathways converge in the orbitofrontal cortex, where neurons also respond to the sight and texture of food. The responses of neurons in this “flavor cortex” are also influenced by conditions of hunger and satiety. BOth tastes and odors prompt strong emotional responses. |
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Term
| What is the relationship between taste and individual taste buds - |
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Definition
| The chemical sense system in the mouth is gustation, or taste. The receptors for taste are in the taste buds which are grouped together in structures called papillae. Normally there are about 10000 taste buds in a person’s mouth mostly on the tongue but also on the roof of the mouth and on the back of the throat. The human taste system generates only a few elementary sensations. The most familiar of these are sweet, sour, bitter, and salty. Each taste bud responds best to one or two of these categories, but it also responds weakly to others. Different tastes are transduced into neural activity by different types of taste receptors and in different ways. Sweet and bitter are signaled when chemicals fit into specific receptor sites but sour and salty act by altering ion channels in the membrane of taste cells |
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Term
| What is the difference between sensation and perception - |
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Definition
| Perception is the process through which sensations are interpreted, using knowledge and understanding of the world, so that they become meaningful experiences. Perception is not a passive process of simply absorbing and decoding incoming sensations. Our brains take sensations and create a coherence world, often by filling in missing information and using past experience to give meaning to what we see, hear, and touch. Perception often takes place automatically without conscious awareness. |
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Term
| What is the constructivist approach to sensation and perception - |
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Definition
| The constructivist approach argues that our perceptual systems construct a representation of reality from fragments of sensory information. These psychologists are particularly interested in situations in which the same stimulus creates different perceptions in different people. COnstructivists emphasize that our perception is strongly influenced by what we have learned from our experiences and by the expectations and inferences that those experiences create. |
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Term
| What is the ecological approach to sensation and perception - |
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Definition
| Researchers influenced by the ecological approach to perception claim that most of our perceptual experience comes directly from the wealth of information contained in the stimuli coming to us from the environment rather than from our interpretations, inferences, and expectations. JJ GIbson, the founder of the ecological approach, argued that the primary goal of perception is to support actions, such as walking, grasping, or driving, by “tuning in” to the part of the environment that is most important for performing those actions. SO these researchers are less interested in our inferences about the person behind the desk than in how we would use visual information from that person, from the desk, and from other objects in the room to guide us as we walk toward a chair and sit down. |
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Term
| What are the Gestalt grouping principles? How do the principles of common region, proximity, common fate, and figure - ground operate - |
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Definition
PSCCTSC and SCC. Play some cool clarinet to stay calm. Some cool clarinet.1. Proximity: The closer objects or events are to one another, the more likely we are to perceive them as belonging together.
2. Similarity: We tend to perceive similar elements as part of a group.
3. Continuity: When sensations appear to create a continuous form, we tend to perceive them as belonging together.
4. Closure: We tend to fill in missing contours to form a complete object. THe tendency to fill in missing contours can be so strong that you may see faint connections that are not really there.
5. Texture: When basic features of stimuli have the same texture we tend to group those stimuli together.
6. Simplicity: We tend to group features of a stimulus in a way that provides the simplest interpretation of the world
7. Common fate: When objects are moving in the same direction as the same speed, we tend to perceive them as being together.
Stephen Palmer (1999) has introduced three additional grouping principles:
1. Synchrony: When different stimuli occur at the same time, we are likely to perceive them as belonging together.
2. Common region: When stimulus elements are located within some boundary, we tend to perceive them as being together.
3. Connectedness: When stimulus elements are connected by other elements, we tend to group them together. |
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Term
| What is depth perception - |
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Definition
| Our ability to perceive distance. |
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Term
| What are the major cues to depth perception and how does each cue work - |
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Definition
relative size: If two objects are assumed to be about the same size, the object producing a larger image on the retina is perceived as closer than the one producing a smaller image.
height in the visual field: On the ground, more distance objects are usually higher in the visual field than those nearby. This is one reason why objects higher in the visual field are more likely to be interpreted as the background for objects that are lower in a scene.
Interposition (occlusion): One of the most important depth cues. Closer objects block the view of things farther away.linear perspective: The closer together two converging lines are, the greater the perceived distance. So objects that are nearer the point of convergence are seen as farther away.
reduced clarity: Increased distance usually produces less clarify and this reduced clarity is interpreted as a cue for greater distance.
light and shadow: Also contribute to the perception of three dimensions.
texture gradient: A graduated change in the texture of grain of the visual field. Texture appears finer and less detailed as distance increases. So as the texture of a surface changes across the retinal image, you perece a change in distance.
movement gradient: I.e. when you look out the window of a moving car, objects nearer to you seem to move faster across the visual field whereas objects in the distance seem to move slowly if at all. This difference in the rate of movement is called motion parallax and it provides cues to differences in the distance of various objects. |
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Term
| When do children acquire depth perception - |
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Definition
| Depth perception, which is the ability to judge if objects are nearer or farther away than other objects, is not present at birth. It is not until around the fifth month that the eyes are capable of working together to form a three-dimensional view of the world and begin to see in depth. |
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Term
| What is a perceptual constancy - |
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Definition
Perceptual constancy is the perception of objects as constant in size, shape, color, and other properties despite changes in their retinal images.
What is size constancy and how is it maintained - SIze constancy describes how objects appear to remain about the same size no matter what changes occur in the size of their retinal image. As objects move closer or farther away, our brains perceive the change in distance and automatically adjust our perception. This calculation can be expressed as a formula: the perceived size of an object is equal to the size of the retinal image multiplied by the perceived distance. As an object moves closer, its retinal image increases, but the perceived distance decreases at the same rate, so the perceived size remains constant. As an object moves closer, its retinal image increases, but the perceived distance decreases at the same rate, so the perceived size remains constant. |
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Term
| What is top - down perceptual processing - |
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Definition
| In top-down processing, people use their knowledge in making inferences or “educated guesses” to recognize objects, words, or melodies, especially when sensory information is vague or ambitious. In hearing too, top-down processing can compensate for ambiguous stimuli. Top-down processing is also involved in a phenomenon called pareidolia the perception of a specific image in an ambiguous stimulus array. |
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Term
| What is bottom up perceptual processing - |
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Definition
All along the path from the eye to the brain, certain cells respond to certain features of a stimulus. So the stimulus is first analyzed into basic features before those features are recombined to create a perceptual experience.
10. What role does feature detection play in perception - Certain cells specialize in responding to stimuli that have certain orientations in space. For example, one cell in the cerebral cortex may fire only in response to a diagonal line, so it acts as a feature detector for diagonal lines. The analysis by such feature detectors, early in the information-processing sequence, may contribute to recognition of letters or judgments of shape. Color, motion, and even corners are other sensory features that appear to be analyzed separately in different parts of the brain prior to full perceptual recognition. |
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Term
| What role do schemas and expectations play in perception - |
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Definition
| Top-down processing can have a strong influence on pattern recognition. Our experiences create schemas which are mental representations of how at we know and have come to expect about the world. Schemas can bias our perception toward one recognition or another by creating a perceptual set, a readiness or predisposition to perceive a stimulus in a certain way. Perceptual sets help us deal with the world more efficiently. Perceptual predispositions can be shaped by the context in which a stimulus occurs. Context has biasing effects for sounds too. Expectancy plays a role as well. If you know to expect something, you will be more likely to see it. |
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Term
| What is parallel distributed processing and what role does it play in perception - |
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Definition
| According to the PDP models, the units in a network operate in parallel simultaneously. Connections between units either excite or inhibit other units. If the connection is excitatory, activating one unit spreads the activation to connected units. Using a connection may strengthen it. According to PDP models, recognition occurs as a result of the simultaneous operation of connected units. Units are activated when matched by features in a stimulus. To the extent that features, such as the letters in a word or the angles in a box, have occurred together in the past, the links between them will be stronger and detection of any of them will be made more likely by the presence of all the others. PDP models, sometimes called connectionist models, clearly represent the computational approach to perception. |
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Term
| What role does attention play in perception - |
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Definition
| Attention is the process of directing and focusing certain psychological resources to enhance perception, performance, and mental experience. We use attention to direct our sensory and perceptual systems toward certain stimuli, to select specific information for further processing, to ignore or screen out unwanted stimuli, to allocate the mental energy required to process selected stimuli, and to regulate the flow of resources necessary for performing a task or coordinating several tasks at once. Psychologists have discovered three important characteristics of attention. First, it improves mental processing; you often have to concentrate attention on a task to do your best at it. If your attentional system temporarily malfunctions, you might miss whatever you need to locate. Second, attention takes effort. Prolonged concentration of attention can leave you feeling drained. And when you are already tired, focusing attention on anything becomes more difficult. THird, attentional resources are limited. I.e. if your attention is focused on reading this book, you’ll have less attention left over to listen to a conversation in the next room. |
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Term
| What is classical conditioning - |
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Definition
| A procedure in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that already triggers a reflexive response. As a result of this pairing, the previously neutral stimulus itself comes to trigger a response that is similar to the reflex. |
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Term
| What are the unconditioned stimulus, the unconditioned response, the conditioned stimulus, and the conditioned response - |
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Definition
| The stimulus that elicits a response without conditioning, such as the meat powder in Pavlov’s experiment, is called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). The automatic reaction to this stimulus is called the unconditioned response (UCR). As the neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus, it becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the response it comes to elicit is called the conditioned response (CR). |
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Term
| How does the conditioned response come to be made to the conditioned stimulus - |
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Definition
| a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that already triggers a reflexive response. As a result of this pairing, the previously neutral stimulus itself comes to trigger a response that is similar to the reflex. |
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Term
| What are stimulus discrimination and stimulus generalization in classical conditioning? |
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Definition
| How does each of these processes develop - After a conditioned response is learned, stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus also elicit the response - but to a lesser degree. This phenomenon is called stimulus generalization. Usually the greater the similarity between a new stimulus and the conditioned stimulus, the stronger the conditioned response will be. Stimulus generalization does not run wild because it is balanced by a complementary process called stimulus discrimination. Through stimulus discrimination, people and animals learn to differentiate among similar stimuli. |
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Term
| What is extinction in classical conditioning? What is spontaneous recovery - |
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Definition
| Continued pairings of a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus strengthen conditioned responses. If the conditioned stimulus continues to occur without being followed at least occasionally by the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response will gradually disappear. This fading process is known as extinction. The conditioned response is simply suppressed by a counteracting tendency not to respond. Two pieces of evidence support the conclusion that extincting only suppresses and does not destroy a conditioned response: reconditioning and spontaneous recovery. Reconditioning process occurs much faster than the original conditioning did, suggesting that the extinction did not entirely erase the association between the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response. Even after a conditioned response has been extinguished it will temporarily reappear if the conditioned stimulus occurs again. This phenomenon is called spontaneous recovery the temporary reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction and without further CS-UCS pairings. In general, the longer the time between extinction and the reappearance of the CS, the stronger the recovered conditioned response. Unless the UCS is again paired with the CS, extinction will reoccur and will further suppress the conditioned response. The renewal of a once-extinguished conditioned response is especially likely when extinction occurred in only one particular situation. |
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Term
| What is biopreparedness - |
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Definition
| How does it influence classical conditioning - After Pavlov’s experiment, many psychologists believed that the associations formed through classical conditioning were like velcro. Just as velcro pieces of any size or shape can be easily attached, some believed that any conditioned stimulus has an equal potential for becoming associated with any unconditioned stimulus, as long as the two stimuli occur in the right time sequence. This view called equipotentiality was later challenged by experiments showing that certain signals or events are especially likely to form associations with other events. THis apparent natural tendency for certain events to become linked suggests that humans and animals are biologically prepared or genetically tuned to develop certain conditioned associations. The most dramatic example of this biopreparedness is seen in conditioned taste aversions. These show that for certain kinds of stimuli, classical conditioning can occur even when there is a long delay between the CS (taste) and the UCS (sickness). Taste aversion makes sense in evolutionary terms because organisms that are biologically prepared to link taste signals with illness, even if it occurs after a considerable delay, are more likely to survive than organisms not so prepared. |
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Term
| What is operant conditioning - |
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Definition
| Skinner emphasized that during instrumental conditioning, an organism learns a response by operating on the environment, so he called the process of learning these responses operant conditioning. His primary aim was to analyze how behavior is changed by its consequences. The tools Skinner devised allowed him and other researchers to precisely arrange relationships between a response and its consequences and then to analyze how those consequences affected behavior over time. The basic phenomena seen in classical conditioning, such as stimulus generalization, stimulus discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery- also occur in operant conditioning. However, operant conditioning involves additional concepts and processes as well. |
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Term
| How do classical and operant conditioning differ - |
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Definition
| Classical conditioning is an important kind of learning, but it can’t explain most of what people learn on a daily basis. In classical conditioning, neural and unconditioned stimuli are predictably paired, and the result is an association between the two. But people also learn associations between their actions and the stimuli that follow them, aka between behavior and its consequences. Much of the groundwork for research on the consequences of behavior was done by an American psychologist named Edward L. Thorndike. Thorndike was studying animals’ intelligence and ability to solve problems. His experiments resulted in him discovering the law of effect which states that if a response to a particular stimulus is followed by satisfaction (such as a reward) that response is more likely to be made the next time the stimulus is encountered. Responses that produce discomfort are less likely to be performed again. Thorndike described this kind of learning as instrumental conditioning because responses are strengthened when they are instrumental in producing rewards. B.F. Skinner extended and formalized many of Thorndike’s ideas. Skinner emphasized that during instrumental conditioning, an organism learns a response by operating on the environment, so he called the process of learning these responses operant conditioning. His primary aim was to analyze how behavior is changed by its consequences. The basic phenomena seen in classical conditioning, such as stimulus generalization, stimulus discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery- also occur in operant conditioning. However, operant conditioning involves additional concepts and processes as well. |
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Term
| What is the law of effect - |
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Definition
| states that if a response to a particular stimulus is followed by satisfaction (such as a reward) that response is more likely to be made the next time the stimulus is encountered. Responses that produce discomfort are less likely to be performed again. |
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Term
| What is reinforcement in operant conditioning - |
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Definition
| Skinner introduced the term operant or operant response to distinguish the responses in operant conditioning from those in classical conditioning. Recall that in classical conditioning, the conditioned response doesn’t affect whether or when a stimulus occurs. An operant is a response that has some effect on the world; it is a response that operates on the environment. A reinforcer increases the probability that an operant behavior will occur again. |
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Term
| What are negative reinforcement and positive reinforcement - |
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Definition
| Positive reinforcers strengthen a response if they are experienced after that response occurs. They are roughly equivalent to rewards. Positive reinforcers can include food, smiles, money, and other desirable outcomes. The process of presenting a positive reinforcer after some response is called positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcers are unpleasant stimuli such as pain, noise, threats, or a disapproving frown that strengthen a response if that response removes them. When a response is strengthened by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus, the process is called negative reinforcement. Notice that reinforcement can be presenting something pleasant or removing something unpleasant, but in either case it always increases the strength of the behavior that precedes it. |
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Term
| What is punishment? Why is punishment not a form of reinforcement - |
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Definition
| Punishment reduces the frequency of an operant behavior by presenting an unpleasant stimulus or removing a pleasant one. Punishment is often confused with negative reinforcement, but they are actually quite different. Reinforcement of any sort always strengthens the behavior; punishment weakens it. If shock is turned off when a rat presses a lever, that is a negative reinforcement. It increases the chances that the rat will press the lever when shock occurs again. But if shock is turned on when the rat presses the lever, that is punishment. The rat will be less likely to press the lever again. |
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Term
| What are stimulus discrimination and stimulus generalization in operant conditioning? How does each of these processes develop - |
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Definition
| The consequences of behavior can be different in different situations, so success in life often depends on the ability to identify and quickly adjust to changing environments. Discriminative conditioned stimuli are stimuli that signal whether a reinforcer is available if a certain response is made. When an organism learns to make a particular response in the presence of one stimulus but not another, stimulus discrimination has occurred. Stimulus discrimination allows people and animals to learn what is appropriate (reinforced) and inappropriate (not reinforced) in particular situations. Stimulus generalization also occurs in operant conditioning. And as in classical conditioning, the more similar the new stimulus is to the old one, the more likely it is that the response will be performed. |
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Term
| What is extinction in operant conditioning? What is spontaneous recovery - |
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Definition
| We know that if a conditioned stimulus no longer predicts the appearance of an unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response to that conditioned stimulus will weaken through the process called extinction. Similarly, if an operant response is no longer followed by a reinforcer, the response will occur less and less often and eventually may disappear or extinguish. Extinction in operant conditioning does not totally erase previously learned relationships. If a discriminative conditioned stimulus reappears at some time after an operant response has been extinguished, that response may recur (spontaneously recover), and if it is again reinforced, it will quickly return to its former level, as though extinction had never happened. In general, behaviors learned under a partial reinforcement schedule are far more difficult to extinguish than those learned on a continuous reinforcement schedule. |
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Term
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Definition
| Shaping is accomplished by reinforcing successive approximations, responses that come successively closer to the desired response. Shaping is an extremely powerful, widely used tool. |
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Term
| What are primary and secondary reinforcement - |
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Definition
| Operant conditioning often begins with the use of primary reinforcers, events or stimuli, that are innately rewarding. A secondary reinforcer is a previously neutral stimulus that takes on reinforcing properties when paired with a stimulus that is already reinforcing. In other words, secondary reinforcers are rewards that people or animals learn to like. The power of operant conditioning can be greatly increased by using secondary reinforcers. Money is a very effective secondary reinforcer. Other forms of social approval are also important secondary reinforcers for human beings. However, secondary reinforcers can vary a great deal from person to person and culture to culture. Still, when chosen carefully, secondary reinforcers can build or maintain behavior even when primary reinforcement is absent for long periods. |
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Term
| What are continuous reinforcement and partial reinforcement in operant conditioning - |
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Definition
| When a reinforcer is delivered every time a particular response occurs, the arrangement is called continuous reinforcement or a continuous reinforcement schedule. This schedule can be helpful when teaching someone a new skill, but it can be impractical in the long run. Quite often reinforcement is administered only some of the time, an arrangement called partial reinforcement or also called a partial or intermittent reinforcement schedule. Most partial reinforcement schedules can be described in terms of when and how reinforcers are given. 18. What is a schedule of reinforcement - “When” refers to the number of responses that have to occur, or the amount of time that must pass, before a reinforcer will occur. “How” refers to whether the reinforcer will be delivered in a predictable or unpredictable way. Different reinforcement schedules produce different patterns of behavior. Both fixed-ratio and variable-ratio schedules produce high rates of behavior overall. THe reason in both cases is that the frequency of the reward depends directly on the rate of responding. |
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Term
| What is a fixed schedule of reinforcement and what is a variable schedule of reinforcement - |
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Definition
| A fixed-ratio reinforcement schedule provides a reinforcer following a fixed number of responses. I.e. computer help desk technicians might be allowed to take a break after every 5th or 10th call they handle. A variable-ratio reinforcement schedule provides a reinforcer after a given number of responses, but that number can vary. I.e. gambling offers humans a similar variable-ratio schedule. A slot machine pays off only after a frustratingly unpredictable number of trials averaging perhaps one in twenty. |
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Term
| What is an interval schedule of reinforcement and what is a ratio schedule of reinforcement - |
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Definition
| A fixed-interval reinforcement schedule provides a reinforcer for the first response that occurs after some fixed time has passed since the last reward, no matter how many responses have been made during that interval. I.e. some radio stations create fixed-interval schedules by telling listeners who just won a prize that they are not eligible to win again for 30 days. Under these circumstances, there is no point in competing until that time has elapsed. A variable-interval reinforcement schedule gives a reinforcer for the first response after some period of time, but the amount of time varies. I.e. Kindergarten teachers who use VI schedules to help keep order in class by giving rewards to children who are in their seats when a chime sounds - at unpredictably varying intervals. |
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Term
| How do these different schedules affect learning - |
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Definition
| That is, under each schedule how rapidly is a behavior lost and how resistant is it to extinction - Different reinforcement schedules produce different patterns of behavior. Both fixed-ratio and variable-ratio schedules produce high rates of behavior overall. THe reason in both cases is that the frequency of the reward depends directly on the rate of responding. |
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Term
| What is aversive conditioning - |
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Definition
| Escape conditioning occurs as a person or animal learns responses that put an end to an aversive stimulus. When an animal or a person responds to a signal in a way that avoids an aversive stimulus that has not yet arrived, avoidance conditioning has occurred. Along with positive reinforcement, avoidance conditioning is one of the most important influences on everyday behavior. It involves a marriage of classical and operant conditioning and it takes place in two steps. THe first step involves classical conditioning and the second step involves operant conditioning. Once learned, avoidance is a difficult habit to break, because avoidance responses continue to be reinforced by fear reduction. The study of avoidance conditioning has not only expanded our understanding of negative reinforcement but has also led psychologists to consider more complex cognitive processes in learning. |
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Term
| What is a taste aversion - |
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Definition
| The most dramatic example of this biopreparedness is seen in conditioned taste aversions. These show that for certain kinds of stimuli, classical conditioning can occur even when there is a long delay between the CS (taste) and the UCS (sickness). Taste aversion makes sense in evolutionary terms because organisms that are biologically prepared to link taste signals with illness, even if it occurs after a considerable delay, are more likely to survive than organisms not so prepared. Evidence from several sources suggests other ways in which animals and people are innately prepared to learn aversions to certain stimuli. I.e. experiments with animals suggest that they are prone to learn the types of associations that are most common in or most relevant to their environments. |
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Term
| What is biopreparedness - How does it influence operant conditioning? |
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Definition
| After Pavlov’s experiment, many psychologists believed that the associations formed through classical conditioning were like velcro. Just as velcro pieces of any size or shape can be easily attached, some believed that any conditioned stimulus has an equal potential for becoming associated with any unconditioned stimulus, as long as the two stimuli occur in the right time sequence. This view called equipotentiality was later challenged by experiments showing that certain signals or events are especially likely to form associations with other events. THis apparent natural tendency for certain events to become linked suggests that humans and animals are biologically prepared or genetically tuned to develop certain conditioned associations. |
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Term
| What are the three basic processes of memory? What role does each of these three basic processes play in memory - |
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Definition
| Encoding is the first basic memory process that involves information getting put into memory. Just as incoming sensory information must be coded so that it can be communicated to the brain, information to be remembered must be put in a form that the memory system can accept and use. WE use various memory codes to translate information from the senses into mental representations of that information. The second basic memory process is storage which refers to keeping information in your memory over time, often a long time.The third memory process, retrieval, occurs when you locate information stored in memory and bring it into consciousness. Retrieval involves both recall and recognition. |
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Term
| What is the difference between episodic and semantic memory? What kind of information is contained in each of these memories - |
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Definition
| Any memory of a specific event that happened while you were present, that is, an episode in your life, is called an episodic memory. I.e. remembering what you had for dinner, where you were last Friday night, etc. Semantic memory contains generalized knowledge of the world that does not involve memory of a specific event. I.e. if you were asked “are wrenches pets or tools?” you could answer correctly using your semantic memory, you didn’t have to remember a specific episode in which you learned that wrenches are tools. As a general rule, people report episodic memories by saying “I remember when...” whereas they convey semantic memories by saying “I know that…” |
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Term
| What is the difference between semantic and procedural memory? What kind of information is contained in each of these memories - |
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Definition
| Memory of how to do things, such as riding a bike or tying a shoelace, is called procedural memory or procedural knowledge. Procedural knowledge often consists of a sequence of movements that are difficult or impossible to put into words. Many activities require all three types of memory. |
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Term
| How does semantic network memory theory conceptualize memory - |
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Definition
| Semantic network theories suggest that information is retrieved from memory through spreading activation. When you think about some concept, it becomes activated in the network, and this activation (in the form of neural energy) begins to spread along all the paths that are related to it. Some associations within the network are stronger than others. Spreading activation travels faster along stronger paths than along weaker ones. Because of the tight organization of the semantic networks and the speed at which activation spreads through them, we can gain access to an enormous body of knowledge about the world quickly and effortlessly. We can retrieve not only facts we have learned from others but also the knowledge that allows us to draw our own conclusions and inferences. |
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Term
| What is the difference between implicit and explicit memory? What kind of information is contained in each of these kinds of memory - |
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Definition
| You are using explicit memory when you consciously and intentionally try to remember something, such as where you went on your last vacation or the correct answer to an exam question. Implicit memory involves the unintentional recollection and influence of prior experiences. This is why you can solve a puzzle faster if you have solved it in the past. This improvement in performance, often called priming, is automatic, and it occurs without conscious effort. Episodic, semantic, and procedural memories can be explicit or implicit, but procedural memory usually operates implicitly - once you have learned to do something well, you can just do it. |
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Term
| What is the difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal? How effective is each form of rehearsal? Why - |
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Definition
| Consider the task of remembering a phone number you just heard. If you were unable to write it down, you would probably repeat the number over and over to yourself until you could find a pen or get to your phone. This process is called maintenance rehearsal. It can be an effective way of remembering information temporarily, but if you need to remember something for hours, months, or years, you are better off using elaborative rehearsal which is a process in which you relate new material to information you have already stored in memory. I.e. instead of trying to remember a new person’s name by simply repeating it to yourself, you could try thinking about how the name is related to something you know well, i.e. if you meet Jim Crews, you may think “he is as tall as my uncle Jim who always wears a crew cut”. Many studies have shown that memory is improved when people use elaborative rehearsal rather than maintenance rehearsal. According to this model, elaborative rehearsal improves memory because information is mentally processed to a greater degree or depth. The more you think about new info, organize it, and relate it to existing knowledge, the “deeper” the processing and the better your memory of it becomes. |
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Term
| What role does the level of processing of information play in memory - |
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Definition
| The levels-of-processing model of memory suggests that what you remember depends on the extent to which you encode and process information when you first encounter it. |
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Term
| What is transfer - appropriate processing? What role does it play in memory - |
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Definition
| The transfer-appropriate processing model of memory suggests another critical factor, namely, the match between how we try to retrieve information and how we originally encoded it. I.e. if students are told what type of exam to expect (multiple choice or essay questions) they perform better than those who do not know what to expect, because the study methods are different for each. The harmony between encoding and retrieval processes can be as important as depth of processing in memory. |
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Term
| What is a retrieval cue? What role do retrieval cues play in memory? What makes a retrieval cue effective - |
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Definition
| Retrieval cues are stimuli that help you retrieve information from long-term memory. They allow you to recall things that were once forgotten and help you recognize information stored in memory. The effectiveness of retrieval cues depends on the extent to which they tap into information that was encoded at the time of learning. This is known as the encoding specificity principle and it is consistent with the transfer-appropriate processing model of memory. Because long-term memories are often encoded semantically, in terms of their general meaning, cues that trigger the meaning of information tend to work best. |
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Term
| What are mood congruent memory, state dependent memory, and context specific memory? What role do retrieval cues play in producing these kinds of memories - |
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Definition
| In general, people remember more of what they learned when they are in the place where they learned it. Because if they have encoded features of the environment in which the learning occurred, those features may later act as retrieval cues. Context-specific memory aka context-specific learning refers to memories that are helped or hindered by similarities or differences in environmental context. Sometimes we encode information about how we were feeling during a learning experience, and this information can also act as a retrieval cue. When our internal state influences retrieval, we have a state-dependent memory aka state-dependent learning. Mood states too can affect memory. People tend to remember more pleasant events when they are feeling good at the time of recall and more negative events when they are in a sad or angry mood. These mood congruency effects are strongest when people try to recall personally meaningful episodes because those episodes were most likely to be colored by their moods. |
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Term
| What role does selective attention play in memory - |
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Definition
| Although sensory memories are stored only briefly, often for less than one second, this is long enough for stimulus identification to begin. Sensory memory helps us experience a constant flow of information, even if that flow is interrupted. The fact that sensory memories quickly fade if they are not processed further is actually an adaptive characteristic of the memory system. You simply couldn’t deal with all of the sights, sounds, odors, tastes, and touch sensations that reach our sense organs at any given moment. Selective attention focuses your mental resources on only some of the stimuli around you, thus controlling what information is processed further. |
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Term
| What is the capacity of short term memory? How can this capacity be increased - |
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Definition
| Immediate memory span is the largest number of items you can recall perfectly after one presentation. If your memory span is like most people’s, you can repeat six or seven items. George Miller (1956) noticed that many studies using a variety of tasks showed the same limit on the ability to process information. This “magic number” which is seven (plus or minus 2), appears to be the typical immediate memory span or capacity of short-term memory, at least in laboratory experiments. In addition, the magic number refers not only to discrete elements such as words or digits but also to chunks, which are meaningful groupings of information that are produced by a cognitive process called chunking. Chunks of information can be quite complex. Learning to use bigger and bigger chunks of information can enhance short-term memory. Adults too can greatly increase the capacity of their short-term memory by more appropriate chunking. In short, although the capacity of short-term memory is more or less constant (five to nine chunks of meaningful information) the size of those chunks can vary tremendously. |
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Term
| What is spreading activation? What effect does it have on memory retrieval - |
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Definition
| How do we retrieve information from semantic memory, where we store our general knowledge about the world? One view of semantic memory suggests that virtually everything we know about, including concepts such as “bird” or “animal” is represented in a dense network of associations, known as a semantic memory network. Semantic network theories suggest that information is retrieved from memory through spreading activation. When you think about some concept, it becomes activated in the network, and this activation (in the form of neural energy) begins to spread along all the paths that are related to it. Some associations within the network are stronger than others. Spreading activation travels faster along stronger paths than along weaker ones. Because of the tight organization of the semantic networks and the speed at which activation spreads through them, we can gain access to an enormous body of knowledge about the world quickly and effortlessly. We can retrieve not only facts we have learned from others but also the knowledge that allows us to draw our own conclusions and inferences. |
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Term
| What is motivated forgetting? What influence does it have on memory - |
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Definition
| suggests that people are able to willfully suppress information so that it is no longer accessible on a later memory test. Even suppressing emotional reactions to events can interfere with a person’s memories of those events. And people appear more likely to forget unpleasant events than pleasant ones. |
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Term
| What is constructive memory? What does constructive memory tell us about the accuracy of memory? Why - |
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Definition
| Our memories are affected by what we experience but also by what we already know about the world. We use that knowledge to organize new information as we encounter it, and we fill in gaps in the information as we encode and retrieve it. These processes are called constructive memory. |
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Term
| What are retroactive and proactive interference? What effect does each of these processes have on memory - |
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Definition
| In long-term memory, forgetting seems to be more directly tied to interference. Sometimes the interference is due to retroactive inhibition, in which learning of new information interferes with our ability to recall older information. Interference can also occur because of proactive inhibition, a process by which old information interferes with our ability to learn or remember new information. |
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Term
| What is a mnemonic strategy? What role do these strategies play in memory - |
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Definition
| Mneomonic strategies are methods for placing information into an organized framework in order to remember it more easily. Verbal organization is the basis for many mnemonic strategies. You can link items by weaving them into a story, sentence, or rhyme. The success of these strategies demonstrates the importance of relating new information to knowledge already stored in memory. All mnemonic systems require that you have a well-learned body of knowledge (such as locations) that can be used to provide a framework, or context, for organizing incoming inforamtion. |
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Term
| What are the basic functions of human thought - |
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Definition
| DEDPG. Don’t eat dried prunes Gary Anderson! The five core functions of thought are: to describe, elaborate, decide, plan, and guide action. These functions can be envisioned as forming a circle of thought. |
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Term
| What is an information processing system - |
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Definition
| receives information, represents the information with symbols, and then manipulates those representations. |
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Term
| How does thinking occur within an information processing system - |
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Definition
| In this model, thinking is defined as the manipulation of mental representations. In the first stage, information about the world reaches the brain by way of the sensory receptors described in the chapter on sensation. This stage does not require attention. In the second stage, the information must be perceived and recognized, using the attentional and perceptual processes described in the chapter on perception. It is also during this stage that the information is consciously elaborated, using short-term and working-memory processes that allow us to think about it in relation to knowledge stored in long-term memory. Once the information has been elaborated in this way, we must decide what to do with it. The third stage, decision making, also demands attention. The decision may be simply to store the information in memory. If, however, a decision is made to take some action, a response must be planned in the third stage and then carried out through a coordinated pattern of responses - the action itself, in the fourth and fifth stages. This action usually affects the environment, providing new information that is “fed back” to the system for processing in the ongoing circle of thought. |
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Term
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Definition
| Concepts are categories of objects, events, or ideas with common properties. TO “have a concept” is to recognize the properties, or features, that tend to be shared by the members of the category. Concepts allow you to relate each object, event, or idea you encounter to a category you already know. Using concepts, you can say “no, that’s not a dog” or “yes, that is a car”. Concepts also make it possible to think logically. |
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Term
| What is a formal concept - |
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Definition
| Formal concepts can be clearly defined by a set of rules of properties such that members of the concept have all of the defining properties and nonmembers don’t. To study concept learning in the laboratory, psychologists often use formal concepts because the members of the concept can be neatly defined. I.e. the concept “square” can be defined as “a shape with four equal sides and four right angle corners.” Any object that does not have all of these features simply is not a square, and any object with all of these features is a square. |
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Term
| What is a natural concept - |
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Definition
| There are many other concepts though that can’t be defined by a fixed set of necessary features. “Home” is an example of a natural concept (aka natural category), a concept that has no fixed set of defining features but instead has a set of typical or characteristic features. Outside the laboratory, most of the concepts that people use in thinking are natural rather than formal concepts. The boundaries of a natural concept are fuzzy, and some members of it are better examples of the concept than others because they share more of its characteristic features. |
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Term
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Definition
| A member of a natural concept that possesses all or most of its characteristic features is called a prototype. The more prototypical a member of a concept is, the more quickly people can decide if it is an example of the concept. Because prototypes are fundamental to the way we perceive and understand the world, understanding the nature of people’s prototypes can have great practical value. |
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Term
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Definition
| We often combine concepts in units known as propositions. A proposition is a mental representation that expresses a relationship between concepts. Propositions can be true or false. Propositions can be expressed as sentences, but they are actually general ideas that can be conveyed in any number of specific ways. Propositions are part of the network of associations that many psychologists regard as the basis for our knowledge of the world. |
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Term
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Definition
One particularly useful type of schema is called a script. Scripts are schemas about familiar activities, such as going to a restaurant, visiting a doctor’s office, or attending a lecture. A script tells you what to do when you are in a restaurant and helps you understand stories involving restaurants. Scripts also shape your interpretation of events. If our scripts are violated, however, it is easy to misinterpret events. Because script-violating events are unexpected, our reactions to them tend to be slower and less effective than our reactions to expected events. People sometimes ignore these script-violating events, interpreting gunshots as a car backfiring and shouted orders as “someone fooling around”. Others simply “freeze” unsure of what to do and failing to realize that they could call the police on their cell phones.
What is a schema - Sets of propositions are often so closely associated that they form more complex mental representations called schemas. Schemas are generalizations that we develop about categories of objects, places, events, and people. Our schemas help us make sense of the world. Schemas also create expectations about objects, places, events, and people - telling us that stereo systems have speakers, that picnics occur in the summer, that rock concerts are loud, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
| Related concepts can be organized not only as schemas and scripts but also as mental models, which are representations of particular situations or arrangements of objects. The more information we receive from existing memories or from new information, the more complete our mental models become. Accurate mental models are excellent guides for thinking about and interacting with many of the things we encounter. If a mental model is incorrect or incomplete however, we are likely to make mistakes. |
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Term
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Definition
| How are these images manipulated - Some mental models stem from sets of propositions that describe a situation, but these models are often based on images in the “mind’s eye”. Mental images are mental representations of visual information. Cognitive psychologists refer to mental images as analogical representations because we mentally manipulate these images in a way that is similar, or analogous, to manipulating the actual objects. More recent studies using neuroimaging have confirmed that manipulating mental images activates some of the same areas of the brain that are active during comparable tasks with real objects. The relationship between imagined and actual movement has been employed by physical therapists, who help stroke victims restore at least partial movement in paralyzed limbs by asking them to imagine moving those limbs. Our ability to think using images extends beyond the mental manipulation of stimuli. |
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Term
| What is formal reasoning - |
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Definition
| Reasoning is the process through which we generate and evaluate arguments as well as reach conclusions about them. Formal reasoning is the process of following a set of rigorous procedures to reach valid, or correct, conclusions. |
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Term
| What is a confirmation bias - |
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Definition
| Belief bias is related to a more general problem in human reasoning called confirmation bias - a tendency to seek evidence and reach conclusions that are consistent with our existing beliefs. Confirmation bias can affect thinking in many situations. The conclusions that people reach are often based on both logical thinking and biased thinking. |
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Term
| What is informal reasoning - |
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Definition
| comes into play when we are trying to assess the believability of a conclusion based on the evidence available to support it. Informal reasoning is also known as inductive reasoning because its goal is to induce a general conclusion to appear on the basis of specific facts or examples. Formal reasoning is guided by algorithms and the rules of logic, but there are no foolproof methods for informal reasoning. A more practical approach is to base your conclusion on the number of observations that you believe to be “enough”. In other words, you would take a mental “shortcut” to reach a conclusion that is probably, but not necessarily, correct. |
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Term
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Definition
| Mental shortcuts to reach a conclusion that is probably but not necessarily correct.Heuristics are often valuable in guiding judgments about which events are probable or which hypotheses are likely to be true. These “rules of thumb” are easy to use and frequently work well. However, heuristics can also bias our thinking and result in errors. |
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Term
| What is the representativeness heuristic - |
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Definition
| Using the representativeness heuristic people decide whether an example belongs in a certain class on the basis of how similar it is to other items in that class. This can be a sensible way to make decisions, but people sometimes use this heuristic even when there is better information available. The impact of the representativeness heuristic can be seen in many real-life judgments and decisions. I.e. when jurors hear technical or scientific evidence presented by an expert witness, they are supposed to consider only the validity of the evidence itself, not the characteristics of the person presenting it. However, they are more likely to be persuaded by the evidence if the witness looks and acts in ways that are representative of the “expert” category. |
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Term
| What is the availability heuristic - |
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Definition
| A third source of biased thinking is the availability heuristic which involves judging the likelihood of an event or the correctness of a hypothesis on the basis of how easily the hypothesis or event comes to mind. People tend to choose the hypothesis or predict the event that is most mentally “available” to them, much as they might select the box of cereal that happens to be at the front of the supermarket shelf. Like other heuristics, this shortcut often works well. After all, frequent events or likely hypotheses are easy to remember. However, the availability heuristic can lead to biased judgments, especially when the mental availability of events does not reflect their true frequency. |
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Term
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Definition
| Organization occurs first at the level of sounds. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that affects the meaning of speech. Changing a phoneme changes the meaning of a spoken word, much as changing a letter in a printed word changes its meaning. The number of phonemes in the world’s languages varies from a low of thirteen (Hawaiian) to a high of over sixty (Hindi). Most languages have between thirty and fifth phonemes, English uses about forty. |
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Term
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Definition
| Although changing a phoneme affects the meaning of speech, phonemes themselves are not meaningful. We combine them to form a higher level of organization: morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of language that has meaning. |
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Term
| What are the deep structure and the surface structure of a sentence - |
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Definition
| In 1965, Noam Chomsky started a revolution in the study of language. He argued that if linguists looked only at the sentences people produce, they would never uncover the principles that underlie language. WIthout looking deeper into language he said, they could not explain for example why the sentence “this is my old friend” can have more than one meaning. Nor could they account for the similar meaning conveyed by such seemingly different sentences such as “don’t give up just because things look bad” and “it ain’t over til it’s over”. To take these aspects of language into account, Chomsky proposed a more abstract level of analysis. He said that behind the strings of words people produce, called surface structures, there is a deep structure, an abstract representation of the relationships expressed in a sentence. For example, the surface structure “the shooting of the psychologist was terrible” can represent either of two deep structures: 1). That the psychologist had terrible aim or 2). That it was terrible that someone shot the psychologist. Chomsky’s analysis of deep and surface structures was important because it encouraged psychologists to analyze not just verbal behavior and grammatical rules but also mental representations. |
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Term
| What are syntax and semantics - |
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Definition
| Words are made up of one or more morphemes. Words, in turn, are combined to form phrases and sentences according to a set of grammatical rules called syntax. Even if you use English phonemes combined in proper ways to form morphemes strung together according to the laws of English syntax, you may still not end up with an acceptable sentence. Semantics is a set of rules that governs the meaning of words and sentences. |
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Term
| What is the anchoring heuristic - |
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Definition
| The anchoring heuristic (aka the anchoring bias) means that someone estimates the probability of an event not by starting from scratch but by adjusting an earlier estimate. This strategy sounds reasonable, but even when new information suggests that their first estimate is way off, people may not adjust that estimate enough. It is as if they have dropped a “mental anchor” that keeps them from moving very far from their original judgment. The anchoring heuristic presents a challenge for defense attorneys in US courtrooms because once a jury has been affected by the prosecution’s evidence (which is presented first) it may be difficult to alter jurors’ belief in a criminal defendant’s guilt or in the amount of money the defendant in a civil case should have to pay. |
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