Term
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Definition
| The initial step toward remembering in which new information is taken in. |
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Term
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Definition
| The record in the nervous system that actually preserves a memory of a past experience. |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of searching for some item in memory and of finding it. If retrieval fails, this may or may not mean that the relevant memory trace is missing. The trace may simply be inaccessible. |
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Term
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Definition
| A task in which a participant must judge whether he has encountered a stimulus previously. |
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Term
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Definition
| The processes of gaining new knowledge, that is, of establishing new memories in long-term storage. |
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Term
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Definition
| Learning without trying to learn (e.g., as in a study in which participants judge a speaker's vocal quality when she recites a list of words and are later asked to produce as many of the words as they can recall). |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of "translating" information into a format in which it can be stored for later use. |
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Term
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Definition
| An approach to memory that proposes several memory stores. One is short-term (or working) memory, which holds a small amount of information for fairly short intervals; another is long-term memory, which can hold vast amounts of information for extended periods. According to the theory, information can only be transferred to long-term memory if it has first been in short-term memory. |
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Term
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Definition
| An approach to memory that proposes several memory stores. One is short-term (or working) memory, which holds a small amount of information for fairly short intervals; another is long-term memory, which can hold vast amounts of information for extended periods. According to the theory, information can only be transferred to long-term memory if it has first been in short-term memory. |
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Term
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Definition
| A part of the memory system that is currently activated but has relatively little cognitive capacity. |
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Term
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Definition
| Those parts of the memory system that are currently dormant and inactive, but have enormous storage capacity. See also stage theory of memory, working memory. |
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Term
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Definition
| The amount of information that can be retained in memory. See also magic number. |
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Term
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Definition
| The number of items that can be recalled after a single presentation. See also magic number. |
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Term
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Definition
| According to George Miller, the number (seven plus or minus two) that represents the holding capacity of the working memory system. |
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Term
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Definition
| A test of memory that asks for as many items in a list as a research participant can recall regardless of order. |
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Term
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Definition
| (1) In free recall, the tendency to recall the first items on a list more readily than those in the middle. (2) In forming an impression of another person, the tendency to give greater weight to attributes noted at the outset than to those noted later. See also recency effect. |
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Term
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Definition
| In free recall, the tendency to recall items at the end of the list more readily than those in the middle. See also primacy effect (in free recall). |
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Term
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Definition
| A process of reorganizing (or recoding) materials in memory that permits a number of items to be packed into a larger unit. |
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Term
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Definition
| Changing the form in which information is stored. |
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Term
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Definition
| Repetition to keep material in working memory for a while. In contrast to elaborative rehearsal, this confers little long-term benefit for longer-term retention. See also elaborative rehearsal. |
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Term
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Definition
| The encoding of a stimulus using its superficial characteristics, such as the way a word sounds or the typeface in which it is printed. |
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Term
| depth of processing hypothesis |
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Definition
| A theory of memory that stresses the nature of encoding at the time of acquisition. It argues that deeper levels of processing (e.g., attending to a word's meaning) lead to better retention and retrieval than shallower levels of processing (e.g., attending to the word's sound). Thus, maintenance rehearsal leads to much poorer retrieval than elaborative rehearsal. See also elaborative rehearsal, maintenance rehearsal. |
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Term
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Definition
| The mental connections, linking one idea to the next, that one uses in locating a bit of information in memory. |
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Term
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Definition
| Deliberate strategies for helping memory, many of which use imagery. |
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Term
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Definition
| A mnemonic technique that requires the learner to visualize each of the items she wants to remember in a different spatial location (locus). Recall requires that each location be mentally inspected for the item placed there. |
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Term
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Definition
| A stimulus that helps one to recall a memory. |
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Term
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Definition
| The hypothesis that retrieval is most likely if the context at the time of recall approximates that during the original encoding. |
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Term
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Definition
| Rehearsal in which material is actively reorganized and elaborated while in working memory. In contrast to maintenance rehearsal, this confers considerable benefit for subsequent memory. See also maintenance rehearsal. |
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Term
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Definition
| Memory retrieval in which there is awareness of remembering at the time of retrieval. See also implicit memory. |
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Term
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Definition
| Memory retrieval in which there is no awareness of remembering at the time of retrieval. See also explicit memory. |
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Term
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Definition
| An increase in the likelihood that an item will be identified, recognized, or recalled caused by recent exposure to that item, which may occur without explicit awareness. |
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Term
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Definition
| In memory experiments, the time that elapses between the original learning and a later test. |
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Term
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Definition
| A curve showing the inverse relationship between memory and the retention interval. |
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Term
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Definition
| The inability to access a memory, often due to poor encoding; an alternative to erasure as an explanation for forgetting. |
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Term
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Definition
| The failure to remember the events of our very early childhood. This is sometimes ascribed to massive change in retrieval cues, sometimes to different ways of encoding memories in early childhood. |
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Term
| tip-o-the tongue phenomenon |
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Definition
| The condition in which one remains on the verge of retrieving a word or name but continues to be unsuccessful. |
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Term
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Definition
| Near-permanent retention of some kinds of items in memory, mostly involving semantic or general knowledge (e.g., multiplication tables, names of family members). |
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Term
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Definition
| Vivid, detailed memories said to be produced by unexpected and emotionally important events. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of memory error in which information acquired in one context is remembered as having been encountered in another (e.g., a person's recalling that she had chocolate cake on her last birthday when she actually had it two birthdays ago). |
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Term
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Definition
| A step aimed at improving someone's ability to remember, by putting her back into the same mental and physical state that she was in during the initial learning. |
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Term
| eyewitness indentifications |
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Definition
| A selection, usually from a group of people or photographs, made by someone who observed a crime (or a simulation of a crime, in a research study), picking the person who was the perpetrator of that crime. |
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Term
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Definition
| A temporary, trancelike state that can be induced in normal persons. During hypnosis, various hypnotic or posthypnotic suggestions sometimes produce effects that resemble some of the symptoms of conversion disorders. See also conversion disorder. |
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Term
| taperecorder theory of memory |
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Definition
| The erroneous view that the brain contains an indelible record of everything one experiences. |
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Term
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Definition
| In psychoanalytic theory, a memory that is so anxiety-laden that it has been pushed out of consciousness where it may fester until it is "recovered." |
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Term
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Definition
| A memory deficit suffered after some brain damage. It is an inability to learn and remember any information encountered after the injury, with little effect on memory for information acquired before the injury. See also retrograde amnesia. |
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Term
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Definition
| A brain disorder characterized by serious memory disturbances. The most common cause is extreme and chronic alcohol use. |
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Term
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Definition
| A memory deficit, often suffered after a head injury, in which the patient loses memory of some period prior to the injury. See also anterograde amnesia. |
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Term
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Definition
| A hypothesis that newly acquired memory traces undergo a gradual change that makes them more and more resistant to any disturbance. |
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Term
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Definition
| Knowing "that" (e.g., knowing someone's name), as contrasted with procedural knowledge, which is knowing "how" (e.g., knowing how to ride a bicycle). |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of memory retrieval that seems swift and effortless: the sought-after information simply "pops" into mind. |
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Term
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Definition
| A deliberate effort to recall information by supplying one's own retrieval cues (e.g., "Let's see, the last time I remember seeing my wallet was . . ."). |
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Term
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Definition
| Sincere but false recollections, usually produced when one encounters a gap in the memory record and (unwittingly) tries to fill this gap. |
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Term
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Definition
| An almond-shaped structure in the temporal lobe that plays a central role in emotion and in the evaluation of stimuli. |
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Term
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Definition
| Internal symbols that stand for something but are not equivalent to it, such as internalized actions, images, or words. |
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Term
| analogical representations |
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Definition
| A representation that shares some of the physical characteristics of an object; for example, a picture of a mouse is an analogical representation because it looks like the small rodent it represents. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of mental representation that does not correspond to the physical characteristics of that which it represents. Thus, the word mouse does not resemble the small rodent it represents. See also analogical representation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Analogical representations that reserve some of the characteristic attributes of our senses. |
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Term
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Definition
| The capacity to form and use quasi-perceptual representations, often referred to as mental pictures, in the absence of the relevant visual input. |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of "looking within" through which a person might try to observe (and perhaps report) the contents of his own mind — his thoughts, beliefs, and feelings, and in some cases the processes through which he came to those current thoughts, beliefs, or feelings. |
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Term
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Definition
| A task in which participants are presented with a rotated figure and must discern whether the figure is normal or, say, mirror-reversed. Participants apparently must visualize the figure rotated to an upright position before responding. |
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Term
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Definition
| The mental computations engaged in when we must locate objects and discern the spatial relationships among them. |
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Term
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Definition
| A mental representation of the spatial layout of a scene, whether a small scene (so that the representation might show, say, the locations of various objects on a table top) or a larger scene (e.g., a representation of an entire city). |
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Term
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Definition
| A class or category that subsumes a number of individual instances. An important way of relating concepts is through propositions, which make some assertion that relates a subject (e.g., chickens) and a predicate (e.g., lay eggs). |
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Term
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Definition
| Memory for items of knowledge as such (e.g., The capital of France is Paris), independent of the occasion on which they are learned. |
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Term
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Definition
| The component of generic memory that concerns the meaning of words and concepts. |
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Term
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Definition
| Theories of cognitive organization, especially of semantic memory, which hold that items of information are represented by a system of nodes linked through associative connections. See also connectionist model, distributed representations, local representations, node. |
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Term
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Definition
| Connections in memory that tie one memory, or one concept, to another. |
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Term
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Definition
| The enhanced performance on verbal tasks that occurs when the items being considered have similar meanings. |
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Term
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Definition
| Trials in a signal detection experiment in which no signal is presented. These trials ensure that the observer is taking the task seriously and truly trying to determine whether a signal is present or not. |
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Term
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Definition
| A model of cognitive organization, especially semantic memory, in which each concept is represented by a single node or, more plausibly, a group of nodes. See also distributed representations, node. |
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Term
| distributed representation |
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Definition
| A model of cognitive organization, especially semantic memory, in which each concept is represented, not by a designated node or group of nodes, but by a widespread pattern of activation across the entire network. See also connectionist model, local representations, network model, node. |
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Term
| parallel distributed processing |
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Definition
| Models of cognitive processing in which the relevant symbolic representations do not correspond to any one unit of the network but to the state of the network as a whole. See also connectionist model, distributed representation. |
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Term
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Definition
| A model of how information in memory is retrieved that relies on distributed representations. In a distributed representation, a concept is conveyed by a pattern of activation across an entire network, rather than by the activation of a single node. In such models, processing depends on having just the right links between concepts, at just the right strengths. |
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Term
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Definition
| The status a person is in at the start of her attempts toward solving a problem. In solving the problem she hopes to move from this initial state to the problem's goal state. |
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Term
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Definition
| The situation one is trying to reach or set up when solving a problem. |
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Term
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Definition
| Problems for which the goal state is defined only in general terms, and for which the available steps in reaching that goal state are not specified. |
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Term
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Definition
| Problems for which there is a clear-cut way of deciding whether a proposed solution is correct. This contrasts with ill-defined problems, for which it is unclear what a correct solution might be. |
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Term
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Definition
| An important strategy for problem solving in which one's current position and resources are continually evaluated with respect to one's goal. |
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Term
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Definition
| In a hierarchical organization, lower-level operations that function semiautonomously but are supervised by higher-level ones. |
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Term
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Definition
| The state that is achieved when an action has gone through the process of automatization. |
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Term
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Definition
| A marked decrease in the speed of naming the colors in which various color names (such as green, red, etc.) are printed when the colors and the names are different. An important example of automatization. |
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Term
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Definition
| The predisposition to perceive, remember, or think of one thing rather than another. |
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Term
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Definition
| A reorganization of a problem that can facilitate its solution; a characteristic of creative thought. |
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Term
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Definition
| The hypothetical process of continuing to work on a problem unconsciously after one has ceased to work on that problem consciously. Most contemporary investigators are skeptical about whether such a process truly exists. |
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Term
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Definition
| The determination of the conclusions that can be drawn from certain premises. |
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Term
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Definition
| Reasoning in which one observes a number of particular instances and tries to determine a general rule that covers them all. |
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Term
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Definition
| Reasoning in which one tries to determine whether some statement follows logically from certain premises, as in the analysis of syllogisms. This is in contrast with inductive reasoning in which one observes a number of particular instances and tries to determine a general rule that covers them all. |
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Term
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Definition
| A logic problem containing two premises and a conclusion that may or may not follow from them. |
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Term
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Definition
| Statements of the format "if . . . then . . .," such as "If he calls me, then we can go to the movies." Called conditional because the "if" clause states the condition under which the "then" clause is guaranteed to be true. |
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Term
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Definition
| A commonly used research task in which participants must decide which cards to turn over in order to determine if a rule has been followed or not. |
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Term
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Definition
| A series of rules, derived from ordinary practical experience, used to guide reasoning about problems involving conditions. |
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Term
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Definition
| Statements of the format "if . . . then . . .," such as "If he calls me, then we can go to the movies." Called conditional because the "if" clause states the condition under which the "then" clause is guaranteed to be true. |
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Term
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Definition
| A rule of thumb often used to make probability estimates, which depends on the frequency with which certain events readily come to mind. This can lead to errors, since, for example, very vivid events will be remembered out of proportion to their actual frequency of occurrence. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
| representativeness heuristic |
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Definition
| A rule of thumb by means of which we estimate the probability that an object (or event) belongs to a certain category based on how prototypical it is of that category, regardless of how common it actually is. See also prototype. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to seek evidence to support one's hypothesis rather than to look for evidence that will undermine the hypothesis. |
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Term
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Definition
| A multidisciplinary attempt to address questions about the mind by integrating what we know from psychology, linguistics, philosophy, anthropology, and computer science. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to repeat the same response inappropriately, typically accompanying the defects in strategy formation often observed with prefrontal lesions. |
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Term
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Definition
| The events in the nervous system that happen at the same time as (and are thus correlated with) the mental or behavioral events we hope to explain. |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability of a person with a lesion in the visual cortex to reach toward or guess at the orientation of objects projected on the part of the visual field that corresponds to this lesion, even though they report that they can see absolutely nothing in that part of their visual field. |
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Term
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Definition
| Generally, the sum of one's beliefs about and attitudes toward oneself. For Carl Rogers, the sense of oneself as both agent and object. |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of "looking within" through which a person might try to observe (and perhaps report) the contents of his own mind — his thoughts, beliefs, and feelings, and in some cases the processes through which he came to those current thoughts, beliefs, or feelings. |
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Term
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Definition
| The theory that we know our own attitudes and feelings only indirectly, by observing our own behavior and then performing much the same processes of attribution that we employ when trying to understand others. |
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Term
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Definition
| A technique of persuasion, initially used by door-to-door salespeople, in which one first obtains a small concession that then makes it easier to persuade the target to make a subsequent, larger concession. |
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Term
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Definition
| An inconsistency among some experiences, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings. According to dissonance theory, this sets up an unpleasant state that people try to reduce by reinterpreting some part of their experiences to make them consistent with the others. |
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Term
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Definition
| A fairly stable, evaluative disposition that makes a person think, feel, or behave positively or negatively about some person, group, or social issue. |
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Term
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Definition
| An attitude that a person acknowledges having and can be expressed; often contrasted with an implicit attitude. See also implicit attitude. |
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Term
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Definition
| An attitude that a person does not realize she holds, but which nonetheless influences her actions and other beliefs. |
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Term
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Definition
| A data pattern, commonly observed in individualist cultures, in which people rate themselves as being above average on many dimensions, for example, a better driver than the average, more likeable than the average, and so on. |
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Term
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Definition
| The steps that people take to influence or guide how other people perceive them. |
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Term
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Definition
| A self-protective strategy in which one arranges for an obvious and nonthreatening obstacle to one's own performance, such that any failure can be attributed to the obstacle and not to one's own limitations. |
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Term
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Definition
| A trait that is associated with many other attributes of the person who is being judged. Warmth and coldness are central because they are important in determining overall impressions. |
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Term
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Definition
| (1) In theories of memory and thinking, a term that refers to a general cognitive structure in which information is organized. (2) In Piaget's theory of development, a mental pattern. |
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Term
| implicit theories of persoanlity |
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Definition
| Beliefs about the way in which different patterns of behavior of people hang together and why they do so. |
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Term
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Definition
| The way in which we interpret and try to comprehend social events. |
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Term
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Definition
| Schemas by which people try to categorize complex groups. Group stereotypes are often negative, especially when applied to minority groups. See also out-group homogeneity effect. |
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Term
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Definition
| A perception that two facts or observations tend to occur together, even though they do not, such as the erroneous belief that all accountants are introverted. |
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Term
| out-group homogeneity effect |
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Definition
| A phenomenon related to stereotyping in which a member of a group (the in-group) tends to view members of another group (the out-group) as more alike (less varied) than are members of his or her own group. |
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Term
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Definition
| A step of inferring or concluding what the cause of an observation was. |
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Term
| fundamental attribution error |
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Definition
| The tendency to attribute behaviors to dispositional qualities while underrating the role of the situation. See also actor-observer difference. |
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Term
| actor-observer difference |
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Definition
| The difference in attributions made by actors who describe their own actions and observers who describe another person's. The former emphasizes external, situational causes; the latter, internal, dispositional factors. See also fundamental attribution error. |
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Term
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Definition
| A process of reducing uncertainty about one's own beliefs and attitudes by comparing them to those of others. |
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Term
| persuasive communications |
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Definition
| Messages that openly try to convince us to act a certain way or to hold a particular belief. |
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Term
| central route to persuasion |
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Definition
| The processes involved in attitude change when someone cares about an issue and devotes resources to thinking about the issue. This route depends on evidence and good arguments, and is contrasted with the peripheral route. |
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Term
| peripheral route to persuation |
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Definition
| The processes involved in attitude change when someone does not care particularly about an issue or devotes few resources to thinking about the issue. This route depends on superficial considerations, such as the appearance of the person giving the persuasive information, and is contrasted with the central route. |
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Term
| dehumization of the victim |
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Definition
| Steps often taken to make a potential victim seem not human (labeling him as vermin, for example, or treating him as a mere number); these steps make aggression toward the victim more likely and less troubling to the aggressor. |
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Term
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Definition
| The theory that the influence others exert on an individual increases with their number, their immediacy, and their strength (e.g., status). |
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Term
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Definition
| An example of the diffusion of social impact in which people working collectively on a task generate less total effort than they would had they worked alone. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to perform better in the presence of others than when alone. This facilitating effect works primarily for simple or well-practiced tasks. |
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Term
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Definition
| The notion that significant events in history are caused by specific and exceptional individuals, rather than being precipitated largely by surrounding events. |
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Term
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Definition
| A pattern often observed in group discussions in which the attitudes of each member of the group become more extreme as a result of the discussion, even though the discussion drew their attention to arguments on the other side of the issue, arguments that plausibly might have moderated their views. |
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Term
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Definition
| A pattern in which a group appears more willing to take chances, or more willing to take an extreme stance, than the individual group members would have been on their own. |
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Term
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Definition
| A pattern of thinking that occurs when a group works on a problem, especially if the group is highly cohesive, faced by some external threat, and closed to outside information or opinions. |
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Term
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Definition
| A weakened sense of personal identity in which self-awareness is diminished and one's own goals are merged in the collective goals of a group. |
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Term
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Definition
| A particular arrangement of payoffs in a two-person situation in which each individual has to choose between two alternatives without knowing the other's choice. The payoff structure is arranged such that the optimal strategy for each person depends upon whether she can trust the other or not. If trust is possible, the payoffs for each will be considerably higher than if there is no trust. |
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Term
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Definition
| A cultural pattern in which people are considered to be fundamentally interdependent and obligations within one's family and immediate community are emphasized. Many of the societies of Latin America, and most of the cultures of Asia and Africa, are collectivist. See also individualism. |
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Term
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Definition
| A cultural pattern in which people are considered to be fundamentally independent and in which the emphasis is on the ways a person can stand out through achieving private goals. Individualist societies include the dominant cultures of the United States, Western Europe, Canada, and Australia. See also collectivism. |
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Term
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Definition
| The social group that one is a member of, usually perceived as more homogeneous than other groups of which one is not a member. |
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Term
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Definition
| A social group with which one does not identify or to which one does not belong. |
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Term
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Definition
| The explanatory principle by which Darwin accounted for biological evolution. It refers to the greater likelihood of successful reproduction for those organisms possessing attributes that are advantageous in a given environment. If these attributes are hereditary, then they will be well represented in the next generation, and, if the process continues over many generations, it can result in wholesale changes in bodily form and behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| Particular behaviors that announce an organism's reproductive availability and intentions. |
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Term
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Definition
| The hypothesis that persons seek romantic or sexual partners who possess a similar level of physical attractiveness. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency of like to mate with like. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of polygamous mating system in which one male monopolizes the reproductive efforts of several females. |
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Term
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Definition
| Any mating system, including polyandry and polygymy, in which one member of a sex monopolizes the reproductive efforts of several members of the other sex. |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of mating system in which one female monopolizes the reproductive efforts of several males. |
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Term
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Definition
| A mating pattern in which a reproductive partnership is based on a special, more or less permanent tie between one male and one female. |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| A state of emotion characterized by idealization of the beloved, turbulent emotions, and obsessive thoughts. See also companionate love. |
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Term
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Definition
| A state of emotion (usually contrasted with romantic love) characterized by the affection we feel for those whose lives are deeply intertwined with our own. |
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Term
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Definition
| The intensification of romantic love that can occur with parental opposition. |
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Term
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Definition
| A whimsical term for the singsong speech pattern that mothers and other adults generally employ when talking to infants. |
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Term
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Definition
| Hostile action directed against another member of one's species, usually intended to do physical or social harm or, for hostile intent, to limit the target's actions. Aggression must be distinguished from the behaviors involved in predation. |
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Term
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Definition
| A research method in which one makes systematic comparisons among different species in order to gain insights into the function of a particular structure or behavior, or the evolutionary origins of that structure or behavior. |
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Term
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Definition
| The principal male sex hormone in mammals. See also androgen. |
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Term
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Definition
| The physical region all around us whose intrusion we guard against. This aspect of human behavior has been likened to territoriality in animals. |
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Term
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Definition
| A social order developed by animals that live in groups by which certain individuals are understood to have a certain status or rank, and this determines their access to resources and how they exert power over others. |
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Term
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Definition
| The proposal that helpful or altruistic behavior is more likely among organisms that are genetically related to each other than it is among unrelated organisms; the logic of the proposal is that helpful behavior among related organisms promotes the survival of their shared genes. |
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Term
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Definition
| A pattern of helpful behavior in which one organism does something for another, and so gains the benefit that the second organism will do something for the first. |
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| A theory that asserts that each partner in a social relationship gives something to the other and expects to get something in return. |
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| A hypothesized type of social relationship in which the relationship depends on reciprocity; if goods (or esteem or loyalty) are given by one of the partners in the relationship, then the other must respond in kind. |
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| A basic rule of many social interactions that decrees that one must repay whatever one has been given. |
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| The act of revealing personal information; usually occurs reciprocally and facilitates intimacy. |
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| A task commonly used to measure people's tendency toward fairness or selfishness in dividing some resource. |
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| Relationships in which another's gains are seen as our own, and so there is no "keeping track" of who owes what to whom. |
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| A situation in which individuals in a group don't know that there are others in the group who share their perception (and often, their confusion), and interpret the others' inaction as reflecting knowledge that in truth is not there. |
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| The phenomenon that underlies many examples of failing to help strangers in distress: the larger the group a person is in (or thinks he is in), the less likely he is to come to a stranger's assistance. One reason is diffusion of responsibility (no one thinks it is his responsibility to act). |
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| James-Lange theory of emotions |
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| A theory that asserts that the subjective experience of emotion is the awareness of one's own bodily reactions in the presence of certain arousing stimuli. |
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| attribution-of-aruosal theory |
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| An approach that combines the James-Lange emphasis on bodily feedback with a cognitive approach to emotion. Various stimuli can trigger a general state of arousal, which is then interpreted in light of the subject's present situation and shaped into a specific emotional experience. |
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| The transfer of autonomic arousal from one situation to another, as when strenuous exercise leads to an increased arousal when presented with aggression-arousing or erotic stimuli. |
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| An almond-shaped structure in the temporal lobe that plays a central role in emotion and in the evaluation of stimuli. |
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| Learned but deeply ingrained conventions that govern what facial expressions of emotion may or may not be shown in what contexts. |
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| According to some theorists, a small set of elemental, built-in emotions revealed by distinctive patterns of physiological reaction and facial expression. |
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