Prokaryotic cell structure: 

Nucleus: 

Plasma membrane:

Cell wall: gram +/- 

Glycocalyx and colonial biofilms 

Nucleus: nucleoid, loop domains, no introns, plasmids

Ribosomes: bacterial 70S 

Plasma membrane: mesosomes perform enzymatic functions (aerobic resp, photosynth)

Cell wall: prevents lysing in hypotonic solutions

Gram +: thick layer peptidoglycan, vulnerable to PCN

Gram -: thin layer peptidoglycan w outer lipopolysaccharide membrane, not vulnerable to PCN

Gycocalyx: slime layer or capsule form

Quorum sensing aggregates colonial biofilms and adhere to surfaces

Appendages: 

Pili/Fimbriae

Flagella 

Pili/fimbriae: threadlike protein strands, attachment, sex pilus

Flagella: motility, powered by ATPase

Cell shapes: 

coccus 

bacillus

vibrio

spirochaete

spirillum

Coccus: spherical

Bacillus: rod shaped

Vibrio: comma shaped

Spirochaete: flexible spiral

Spirillum: rigid spiral 

Conjugation

Transformation 

Transduction 

Conjugation: direct contact btwn bacteria through sex pili

Transformation: bacteria picks up dead bacteria’s DNA

Transduction: virus with other bacteria’s DNA infects bacteria, merges DNA 

Akinetes 

Endospores 

Akinetes: thick walled dormant cells germinate when conditions favorable (cyanobacteria)

Endospores: thick internal cell wall produced around DNA, cell dehydrates and can remain dormant (c. difficile) 

obligate aerobes

obligate anaerobes 

facultative aerobes 

aerotolerant anaerobes 

Phylum: 

Proteobacteria 

Cyanobacteria 

Spirochaetes 

Firmicutes 

Actinobacteria 

Proteobacteria: gram (-)b bacilli, symbiotic (mutual/parasite)

Cyanobacteria: oxygenic photosynethetic bacteria

some N-fixers with heterocysts

Spirochaetes: flagellated spiral bacteria
move through mucus

Firmicutes: gram (+), clustered strepto/diplococci, bacilli

Actinobacteria: branched filaments, aerobic 

Explain beneficial roles of bacteria in ecosystems, identifying types of bacteria involved (4)

1.     Nitrogen fixation: N2àNH3(NH3àAAs)
Diazotrophs: nitrogen fixation bacteria
Heterocysts: specialized N-fixing aerobic cells in cyanobacteria

2.     Carbon cycling: ecosystems need carbon cycling
Autotrophic producers: fix carbon, synthesize org compounds
Decomposters (saprobes): break down organisms into org compounds
Methanogens: produce methane
Methanotrophs: consume methane           

3.     Symbiotic: Mutualism or Parasitism

4.     4Human Industry: Production of dairy, fermented products, wastewater treatment 

Explain and illustrate the replication cycle of HIV

1.     Attachment: bind to host receptor molecules

2.     Entry: Fuse with plasma membrane, release viral RNA and reverse transcriptase (RNA retrovirus)

3.     Integration: Viral RNA reverse transcribed into complementary DNAàDNA, integrase cuts chromosomal DNA to insert viral DNA (provirus)

4.     Synthesizes viral cell components: RNA polymerase transcribes proviral DNA into mRNAàribosomes produce proteins, capsids, glycoproteins

5.     Viral assembly: capsid proteins assemble into a virus

6.     Release: new HIV bud from host cell taking cell membrane 

1.     Attachment: bind to host receptor molecules

2.     Entry: injects DNA (not capsid)

3.     Integration: Integrated into host chromosome via integrase (prophage)

4.     Synthesis of viral cell components: cell enzymes transcribe viral DNAàmRNAàproteins

5.     Viral assembly 

6. Release from host cell with lysozyme enzyme

Explain and illustrate lytic and lysogenic cycles of bacteriophages

Protist supergroups: 

Excavata

"excavated" feeding groove

primitive: no Golgi 

mixotrophic, stigma for phototaxis 

Archaeplastida

red algae

chlorophyta 

primary endosymbiosis obtained plastids 

red algae: phycoerythrin pigment harvest blue/green light

Chlorophyta: green algae gave rise to plants 

Explain how green algae illustrate the transition from single-celled to complex multicellular life (use specific green algae as examples of each state in the transition)

chlamydomonas: flagellated unicell, phototaxic

spirogyra: spiraled chloroplasts

cladophora: branched, filamentous chloroplasts

volvox: colonial, specialized cells with eyespots, repro 

Alveolata 

Phyla: 

Ciliophora 

Dinozoa 

Apicomplexa

Alveoli sacs 

Ciliophora: move by cilia, paramecium reproduction 

Dinozoa: plankton 

Apicomplexa: Plasmodium causes malaria 

Stramenopila

Phyla: 

Water molds 

diatoms 

brown algae 

straw like flagellar hairs 

water molds: caused irish potato famine 

diatoms: phytoplankton w silica frustule 

Brown algae: absorb blue light via secondary endosymbiosis of red algae 

Rhizaria 

Phyla: 

Radiolaria 

Formainifera

Shelled ameobas

filous pseudopodia 

Ameobozoa

Phyla: 

Amoeba

Slime molds 

Pseudopodia movement 

amoeba: contractile vacule, phagocytotic predator

slime mold: plasmodium sporangia stalks, study cell communication 

Opisthokonta

Phyla: 

single posterior flagellum 

Kingdom Fungi 

Choanoflagellates 

Kingdom Animalia 

Explain process of fungal tip growth in a fungal mycelium

Hyphal tip growth:

1.     golgi releases digestive enzymes in vesicles

2.     hypertonic cell absorbs water faster in moist conditions, increase pressure

3.     vesicles aggregate on cell wall, digestive enzymes released, hyphae increases size  

Fungi: 

Plasmogamy 

Dikaryotic mycelium 

Karyogamy

 Plasmogamy: fusion of gametes (=self fertilization) produce:

Dikaryotic mycelium: haploid nuclei, mycelium diploid development fruiting bodies

Karyogamy: haploid nuclei fuse to form diploid zygotes 

Fungi Mutualisms: 

Mycorrhizae (ecto/endo) 

Lichens (crustose, foliose, fruticose) 

Mycorrhizae: fungus + plant, “fungus roots” provide mineral nutrients, plant provides organic nutrients

Ectomycorrhizae: fungi on surface of root

Endomycorrhizae: fungi penetrate root cell walls Arcuscular mycorrhizal (AM)

Lichens: fungus (ascomycetes) + photosynthetic algae (green algae, cyanobacteria)

Fungus produce minerals and protection, photosynthetic provide food, water

Crustose: crusts adhering to surfaces

Foliose: leaflike

Fruticose: shrublike 

Explain how fungi paved the way for plants to colonize land and the types of fungi involved

Primary succession:

1.     grow on rocks, break down rocks into minerals for soil building

2.     Cyanobacterial partner fixes nitrogen