[book: alternating periods of active treatment (or more reinforcement) with periods of baseline measurement). This allows the clinician to determine (1) whether the reinforcement program is working, and, if so (2) whether the client’s behavior continues at the improved level after the reinforcement has been discontinued.] 

This is a type of experimental study, done with one patient, in which the patient’s condition is measured before treatment to get a baseline reading (condition A), then measured during treatment (condition B), and then treatment is removed to see if the patient’s condition will revert back to baseline (evidence that the treatment caused the change in the condition). 

Direct observation, continuous measurement, and clear criteria for change are all necessary. 

Problems with this design include that sometimes it may not be ethical to remove treatment, and other times it may not be possible (i.e. you cannot “unteach” social skills training). In addition, the results lack generalizability.

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A third generation behavioral therapy developed by Steven Hayes, this emphasizes accepting painful thoughts and feelings as a natural and normal part of being human and committing to live a life consistent with one’s values in a spite of them. 

Hayes believes that the main problem is a client’s psychological inflexibility, which has six parts: cognitive fusion, attachment to the conceptualized self, experiential avoidance, disconnection from the present moment, unclear values, and inaction with respect to values. 

The objective of ACT is not elimination of difficult feelings; rather, it is to be present with what life brings us and to "move toward valued behavior".[7] Acceptance and commitment therapy invited people to open up to unpleasant feelings, and learn not to overreact to them, and not avoiding situations where they are invoked.

Movement towards psychological flexibility is accomplished by teaching acceptance and mindfulness skills, as well as commitment and behavior change skills.

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A list of items that represents a cross section of a client’s feared situations, arranged from least anxiety provoking to most anxiety provoking. In forming the anxiety hierarchy, the client rates a number of situations pertaining to their feared stimulus on a subjective units of distress scale (SUDs), 0-100. 

The anxiety hierarchy is a component of several exposure-based therapies, including systematic desensitization.

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In the context of developmental psychology, assets are positive attributes that can be internal (such as commitment to learning, positive values, and social competencies), and external (such as support, empowerment, boundaries, and expectations). 

Assessments of these characteristics and processes in individuals help with problem definition, intervention design, and treatment evaluation.

Also referred to as a client’s strengths, therapists can focus on these in order to affect therapeutic change.

This also helps with client cooperation and acceptance of therapy. 

It is a way to put a positive spin on the presenting issue; instead of saying, “what is wrong and how to treat it”, the clinician can say, “what is right and how to help use it”.

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A term coined by Beck in the context of cognitive therapy, an automatic thought is a habitual thought that occurs so rapidly that it is barely conscious and that guide a person’s mood, attentional focus, and actions, often without the person’s realizing that they are doing so.

Thoughts that have been so well learned that they no longer take conscious effort or attention.

Becoming conscious of these thoughts allows a person to change them to more accurate ones which are better guides to feeling, thinking, and acting. 

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Behavioral activation (BA) is a third generation behavior therapy for treating depression. It is one of many functional analytic psychotherapies which are based on a Skinnerian psychological model of behavior change, generally referred to as applied behavior analysis. 

This area is also a part of what is called clinical behavior analysis (CBA) and makes up one of the most effective practices in the professional practice of behavior analysis.

The theory holds that not enough environmental reinforcement or too much environmental punishment can contribute to depression. The goal of the intervention is to increase environmental reinforcement and reduce punishment.

Ex: One behavioral activation (BA) approach to depression was as follows:[8] participants were asked to create a hierarchy of reinforcing activities which were then rank-ordered by difficulty; participants tracked their own goals along with clinicians who used a token economy to reinforce success in moving through the hierarchy of activities; participants were measured before and after by the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and a great effect on their depression was found as a result of their treatment. 

A category of therapies originally based upon Pavlov's theory of classical conditioning. Includes Systematic Desensitization, Implosion Therapy, and Aversion Therapy.

Those who practice behavior therapy tend to look more at specific, learned behaviors and how the environment influences those behaviors.

They tend to look for treatment outcomes that are objectively measurable.

Main pioneers of this therapy were Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner.

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In the context of research design, a confounding variable is a stimulus other than the variable an experimenter explicitly introduces into a research setting that affects a participant's behavior.

It is desirable to identify confounding variables and eliminate them, as they can alter the perception of the results, such as which variable causes which outcome.

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In the context of psychological theory, cognitive fusion is a part of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, which assumes that the natural human mind is more destructive to itself than constructive.

Cognitive fusion is one concept viewed as being the core of many mental disturbances, in which the individual becomes enveloped in destructive thoughts.

The therapist must work with the client on cognitive defusion, to teach them how to reduce the tendency to reify thoughts, emotions, and memories that perpetuate the issue.

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Pioneered by Aaron Beck and Albert Ellis, this is a group of techniques in the realm of cognitive behavioral therapy that are designed to challenge a patient’s maladaptive cognitions. Cognitive restructuring assumes that a client’s unrealistic beliefs and faulty cognitions lead to dysfunctional emotions and behaviors, such as depression, anxiety, and social withdrawal. 

Through changing the maladaptive thoughts, it is believed that changes in feelings and behaviors will follow.

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In respondent conditioning, the unconditioned response is the individual’s response to the unconditioned stimulus which occurs without any conditioning.

The conditioned response is the learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

The conditioned and unconditioned responses are the same response.

Ex:

In respondent conditioning, the conditioned stimulus is the neutral stimulus which gains the power to elicit the response through pairing with the unconditioned stimulus. The unconditioned stimulus is the stimulus which elicits the reflexive response without any conditioning.

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An if/then relationship between a behavior and its consequences, i.e. a schedule of reinforcement. The delivery of the reinforcer is contingent upon a certain behavior or response. 

Contingencies are commonly used in behavioral modification. Schedules of reinforcement may be continuous or partial/intermittent. Intermittent schedules of reinforcement tend to make the behavior or response more resistant to extinction.

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 Derived from lessons learned in Pavlov’s classical conditioning research about cues and eliciting behaviors, cue exposure therapy is a form of treatment which aims to decrease responses to certain cues, or triggers, through exposure and preventing the normal response.

Over time, the cue should not have such a strong hold over the client’s behaviors.

Ex:** To overcome anger and irritation, we could welcoming each incident of potential irritation as a “learning opportunity” to practice our new behavior of calmness in the face of provocation. 

A method documented as being used historically, such as by Benjamin Franklin, the decisional balance matrix is a tabular method for representing the pros and cons of different choices and for helping someone decide what to do in a certain circumstance. 

It is often used in working with ambivalence in people who are engaged in behaviors that are harmful to their health (for example, problematic substance use or excessive eating), and as part of psychological approaches such as motivational interviewing.

In general, for people to succeed at behavior change, the pros of change should outweigh the cons before they move from the contemplation stage to the action stage of change. 

Thus, the balance sheet is both an informal measure of readiness for change and an aid for decision-making.

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Developed by Masha Linehan as a treatment for individuals who are suicidal, and typically used now with individuals with Borderline Personality Disorder. 

Linehan found that, with suicidal thoughts, neither stressing change nor stressing acceptance seemed to work. Her solution was to develop a treatment that uses a careful balance of both validation and acceptance strategies and problem-solving/change strategies. 

Clients are taught mindfulness skills, interpersonal effectiveness skills, and emotion-regulation skills.

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Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior

(DRO)

In the context of operant conditioning, this is when an individual is reinforced after a certain amount of time in which the undesired response has not occurred (any other behavior could have occurred). 

DRO is often unrealistic as it is quite time-consuming. When it is used, it is often in conjunction with extinction of the undesired response.

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In the context of operant conditioning, a discriminative stimulus is a stimulus which helps the learner distinguish between situations in which a given response will be reinforced and situations in which the same response will not be reinforced.

The stimulus does not provoke the response, but instead signals to the learner that the situation is appropriate for that response. 

Through the process of discrimination, an individual may learn which behaviors will be reinforced in which environments.

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In Bandura’s work on self-efficacy, in the context of social theory, these refer to an individual’s belief in whether or not they can successfully execute the behaviors required to produce a desired outcome. 

The theory of self-efficacy lies at the center of Bandura’s social cognitive theory, which emphasizes the role of observational learning and social experience in the development of personality.

Efficacy expectations, a part of the self-efficacy theory, can influence whether or not a person will attempt these behaviors. They are influenced by a person’s past accomplishments, verbal persuasion, and emotional arousal.

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Empirically Supported Therapy/Treatment

(EST)

These are therapies which have a well-defined treatment protocol that can be independently replicated and has been supported by the research of several independent investigators. 

In terms of empirical support, an EST needs evidence in its favor from at least two well-designed randomized placebo-controlled clinical trials, many single-case experimental design studies, or a meta-analysis.

ESTs are used by clinicians practicing evidence-based treatments, which is the integration of the best available research with clinical expertise in the context of the patient’s characteristics, culture, and preferences.

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A type of learning seen in operant conditioning, escape behaviors are those which an individual can perform in order to escape an unpleasant stimuli, and avoidance behaviors are those an individual can perform in order to avoid the presentation of unpleasant stimuli.

In both escape and avoidance learning, negative reinforcement is at work. In escape learning, the individual experience relief from the aversive stimulus through the escape behavior; in avoidance learning, the individual experiences relief from the anxiety of almost experiencing an aversive stimulus.

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Exposure with Response Prevention

(ERP)

A method documented as being used historically, such as by Benjamin Franklin, the decisional balance matrix is a tabular method for representing the pros and cons of different choices and for helping someone decide what to do in a certain circumstance. 

It is often used in working with ambivalence in people who are engaged in behaviors that are harmful to their health (for example, problematic substance use or excessive eating), and as part of psychological approaches such as motivational interviewing.

In general, for people to succeed at behavior change, the pros of change should outweigh the cons before they move from the contemplation stage to the action stage of change. 

Thus, the balance sheet is both an informal measure of readiness for change and an aid for decision-making.

Ex:

In the context of operant conditioning, extrinsic reinforcers are those which come from outside an individual (money, praise from others), and intrinsic reinforcers are those that come from within an individual (sense of a job well done, personal pride). Intrinsic reinforcers tend to be more effective at maintaining behavior than extrinsic reinforcers.

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The primary way in which behaviorists assess a patient’s problems, this from of analysis is also known as the ABCPA model. The behavior (B) is explicitly identified and defined measurably, the circumstances that precede the behavior (A) are considered (antecedents–time of day, social contexts), and the consequences (C) of the behavior are also taken into account (reinforcing consequences). 

The client’s person variables (P) are also assessed, including things such as how they encode events, how they feel about the events, and what kind of self-talk they use. 

Unlike some other approaches, this assessment technique takes into account the client’s assets (A), or things that they do well. 

Ex:

Discrimination is considered the counterpart to generalization. Generalization and discrimination are learning processes in both respondent and operant conditioning, discovered by Watson’s experiments with Little Albert. 

In respondent conditioning, generalization occurs when a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response. 

In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when a stimulus similar to the discriminative stimulus prompts the same response as the discriminative stimulus.

In respondent conditioning, discrimination is the process in which a learner

responds to one stimulus but not to another, indicating that they can tell a difference between the two stimuli. 

In operant conditioning, this is the process of learning which behaviors will be reinforced in which situations. 

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 A technique in behavior therapy first used by James Taylor, in which an individual is confronted with the thing he or she fears most either in imagination or in real life under safe circumstances, commonly used to treat anxiety disorders. 

Eventually the person becomes habituated to it and the initial fear responses gradually diminish and disappear.

It is believed that intervention using this technique for acute stress disorder, may keep the client from developing post traumatic stress disorder.

Performed using a fear hierarchy, exposing the individual to cues that they are least afraid of, then gradually moving up the hierarchy, eventually extinguishing the most feared item. Flooding, in comparison, does not allow for gradual exposure.

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In the context of psychotherapy, iatrogenic effects refer to adverse effects or complications caused by or resulting from clinical treatment or advice. 

They can occur due to misdiagnosis. There are many conditions hypothesized to be partially or completely iatrogenic. 

The degree of association of any particular condition with iatrogenic effects is unclear and in some cases controversial. 

The over-diagnosis of psychological conditions is due to clinical dependence upon subjective criteria. 

The assignment of pathological nomenclature is rarely a benign process and can easily rise to the level of emotional iatrogenic effects, especially when no alternatives outside of the diagnostic naming process have been considered.

It is a major phenomenon and a severe risk to patients. 

Ex*: For example, hypnosis by therapist may create memories among patients.

In the context of behavior therapy, imaginal exposure is a part of exposure therapy. Imaginal exposure is a technique in which patients are asked to imagine a situation that they are afraid of.

This procedure is helpful for people who need to confront feared thoughts and memories. 

Ex: (May be used with combat veterans, etc.)

 In the context of clinical behavioral analysis, and a part of applied behavioral analysis, individual and group contingencies are based on operant conditioning, or positive reinforcement, and produce one of the largest effect sizes out of all mental health interventions.

Patients' behaviors are rewarded, contingent on their adherence to the plan, or less often, punished for failure to adhere to the rules and regulations or their treatment plan.

One form of contingency management is the token economy system, which can be used with individual or group format.

The goal of such systems is to gradually thin out and to help the person begin to access the natural community of reinforcement (the reinforcement typically received in the world for performing the behavior).

Ex:

A technique of behavioral therapy in which the client is intentionally exposed to anxiety evoking situations, usually after relaxation training and with the goal of reducing the anxiety associated with the situations. 

This type exposes the patient to actual fear-inducing situations. For example, if someone fears public speaking, the person may be asked to give a speech to a small group of people. 

Also called in vivo desensitization.

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 A behavioral theory coined by Martin Seligman, in the context of clinical psychology, learned helplessness is behavior typical of a human or non-human animal that has endured repeated painful or otherwise aversive stimuli which it was unable to escape or avoid. 

After such experience, the organism often fails to learn escape or avoidance in new situations where such behavior would be effective. 

In other words, the organism learned that it is helpless in aversive situations, that it has lost control, and so it gives up trying.

Learned helplessness theory is the view that clinical depression and related mental illnesses may result from such real or perceived absence of control over the outcome of a situation.

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In the context of Bandura’s social learning theory, there is a distinction between the learning segment of modeling and the performance segment of modeling. 

Learning is primarily an internal process, during which the individual attends to someone’s behavior and retains the memory of it.

Performance is primarily an external process, in which the individual reproduces the behavior and notes what kind of reinforcement they receive. 

Observed behavior may be an inaccurate indicator of knowledge–if motivation is not present, behavior will not be present.

Ex:

 Meta-analysis is any statistical procedure in which the effect sizes of numerous studies are combined into a distribution of effect sizes used to gauge the likely size of the effect in general.

In meta-analysis, the purpose is to combine multiple effect sizes.

In statistics, an effect size is a quantitative measure of the strength of a phenomenon. This refers to the magnitude of an experimental result usually expressed in standard deviation units.

Examples of effect sizes are the correlation between two variables, the regression coefficient in a regression, the mean difference, or even the risk with which something happens.

It differs from statistical significance in that statistical significance is dependent on variability so that, in homogeneous groups, very small differences can reach statistical significance, while in heterogeneous groups much larger differences can lack statistical

significance.

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An Eastern concept developed in the religion of Buddhism, mindfulness is the practice of being fully aware and accepting of the present moment. An individual practicing mindfulness learns to observe and accept thoughts and feelings instead of ignoring or rejecting them. Mindfulness has been incorporated into several third-generation cognitive behavioral therapies, including Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and Dialectical Behavior Therapy.

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A part of Bandura’s social learning theory, Bandura agrees with the basic learning principles of respondent and operant conditioning, but believes these are not sufficient to account for complex learning.

Instead, he believes that much learning occurs through observing other people and the consequences of their actions, a process he called modeling.

There are four parts to modeling: attention and retention, which are the learning aspect of modeling, and reproduction and motivation, which are the performance aspect of modeling.

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Developed by Miller and Rollnick, this is a cognitive behavioral therapy designed to increase a client’s motivation to change by exploring and attempting to resolve the client’s ambivalence. 

The therapist tries to increase cognitive dissonance by highlighting the discrepancy between the client’s current behaviors and their goals and values. 

This is accomplished through expressing empathy, rolling with the client’s resistance, and supporting of self-efficacy. 

Clients may create a decision balance matrix to weigh the pros and cons of changing or not changing.

Ex:

Developed by Miller and Rollnick, this is a cognitive behavioral therapy designed to increase a client’s motivation to change by exploring and attempting to resolve the client’s ambivalence. 

The therapist tries to increase cognitive dissonance by highlighting the discrepancy between the client’s current behaviors and their goals and values. 

This is accomplished through expressing empathy, rolling with the client’s resistance, and supporting of self-efficacy. 

Clients may create a decision balance matrix to weigh the pros and cons of changing or not changing.

Ex:

A principle in operant conditioning. Negative reinforcement occurs when an aversive stimulus is removed following a behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior. 

The removal of the undesired stimulus is a relief to the individual, who will likely engage in the desired behavior more frequently for further relief from the undesired stimulus.

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Discovered by Skinner, this is a form of conditioning in which behaviors are increased or decreased through the addition or removal of rewarding or aversive stimuli following the behavior.

Skinner believed that behavior was controlled completely by its consequences. The behaviors this conditioning works on are those which operate on the environment, behaviors Skinner called operant behaviors. 

These behaviors are not automatically triggered by stimuli, as the behaviors in respondent conditioning are.

Ex:

Outcome Expectations

Outcome Expectations

In Bandura’s work on self-efficacy, outcome expectations are an individual’s belief that a particular course of action will ultimately produce certain outcomes. 

Outcome expectations may influence whether a person puts themselves in certain situations or not.

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 Outcome and process research, in the context of psychotherapeutic study, is defined as the scientific investigation of psychotherapy as a treatment for mental and behavioral health problems. 

Outcome research, first documented as being employed by Florence Nightingale during the Crimean war, examines the effectiveness of psychotherapy as a treatment, or what the effects may be, with the goal to measure tangible events experienced by the patient such as mortality.

Process research examines the means by which, or how, psychotherapy produces its effects. It is the focus of the client, therapist, and their interactions and distinguishing how therapeutic changes occur.

Research on the process of psychological therapy aims to demonstrate how therapy works, partly to increase understanding, but primarily to increase effectiveness by pointing to the crucial ingredients which effect change.

There are three broad types of process research: (1) studies which describe behaviors and processes occurring within therapy sessions (exploratory studies); (2) studies which investigate the links between specific psychotherapy processes and treatment outcome (hypothesis testing); (3) studies which examine the links between specific psychotherapy processes and theories of change (theory development). 

This area of research has important implications for clinical practice, including implications regarding what types of treatments should be used in clinical settings as well as implications about how those treatments should be provided.

Initial studies tended to differentiate between outcome research, which focuses on the impact of treatment on patients, and process research, which examines the essential events of therapy.

Ex: 

A form of cognitive behavioral therapy (Forehand & Patterson) based on the assumption that when a child is brought to therapy, the problem is not with the child but with the interactions between child and parents. 

The goals are to improve the parent-child relationship and improve the parent’s behavior management skills.

In the first phase, child-directed interaction, the goal is to increase parental responsiveness to the child and establish a secure and nurturing relationship.

The second phase, parent-directed interaction, works on improving parental limit-setting and consistency in discipline.

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Positive Reinforcement

A principle in operant conditioning. Positive reinforcement is when a reinforcing stimulus is presented after a behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior. The reinforcing stimulus is seen as desirable by the individual, who engages in the desired behavior more frequently in order to obtain it.

Ex:

Premack Principle

A principle of operant conditioning developed by David Premack, the Premack principle states that high frequency behaviors may be used to reinforce low frequency behaviors.

If the ability to engage in the high frequency behavior is contingent upon the performance of the low frequency behavior.

Ex: Sandra came to a child therapist complaining that her son Tommy watches TV all day and never does his homework or plays outside. The therapist proposed a plan based on the Premack principle in which Tommy would be allowed to watch an hour of TV for every hour he spent either doing homework or playing outside.

In the context of cognitive behavioral therapeutic intervention, and a part of social problem solving theory, problem solving therapy involves patients learning or reactivating problem solving skills. 

These skills can then be applied to specific life problems associated with psychological and somatic symptoms. 

Problem solving therapy is suitable for use in general practice for patients experiencing common mental health conditions and has been shown to be as effective in the treatment of depression as antidepressants. 

Problem solving therapy involves a series of sequential stages. The clinician assists the patient to develop new empowering skills, and then supports them to work through the stages of therapy to determine and implement the solution selected by the patient.

This is a way to help empower the client to know they are able to take care of problems that may have been overwhelming before therapy.

Steps: 1) Identify the problems; 2) Identify the goals; 3) Identify possible solutions; 4) Put solutions into action.

Ex:

In the context of operant conditioning, a primary reinforcer is something that is naturally reinforcing without its value being taught–things like food, sex, and sleep are primary reinforcers.

A secondary reinforcer is one which has a value that has to be taught or learned, frequently through association with a primary reinforcer. 

A generalized reinforcer is a secondary reinforcer that has obtained its reinforcing function by being paired with many other reinforcers (such as money).

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 A part of operant conditioning, in the context of behavioral theory, punishment is the administration of a stimulus that decreases the likelihood that the behavior

that immediately preceded the stimulus will be repeated.

As with reinforcement, it is the behavior, not the animal, that is punished. Whether a change is or is not punishing is only known by its effect on the rate of the behavior, not by any "hostile" or aversive features of the change. 

For example, painful stimulation which would serve as a punisher in many cases serves to reinforce some behaviors of the masochist.

If target behavior occurs, punishment follows, in order to decrease the behavior.

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Within the context of Bandura’s social theory, reactivity of self-monitoring is the procedure by which individuals record the occurrences of their own target behaviors, and there is a change in behavior due to one’s awareness of their actions. 

In addition to providing a source of data, self-monitoring is used as a therapeutic strategy because it often causes reactive behavior changes in response frequency.

Self-monitoring strategies are individualized plans used to increase independent functioning in academic, behavioral, self-help, and social areas. 

Rather than focusing on reducing a student’s undesired behavior, self-monitoring strategies develop skills that lead to an increase in appropriate behavior. 

When self-monitoring skills increase, corresponding reductions in undesired behaviors often occur, even without direct intervention 

Ex: (Using for LD students, but only changes behavior, with increased attention, but not increased knowledge.)

A theory put forth by Bandura, in the realm of social psychology, reciprocal determinism says that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment. 

Bandura accepts the possibility of an individual's behavior being conditioned through the use of consequences. 

At the same time he asserts that a person's behavior (and personal factors, such as cognitive skills or attitudes) can impact the environment.

Ex:

In operant conditioning, a reinforcer is any stimulus which serves to strengthen or increase the frequency of the response or behavior that preceded it. 

Typically, reinforcers are stimuli which can be delivered repeatedly during a learning process, as research has shown that small, immediate reinforcers are more effective in promoting learning than large, delayed ones.

Ex:

Schedules of Reinforcement:

FR, FI, VR, VI, and CRF

In the context of operant conditioning, schedules of reinforcement refer to when and how often a behavior or response is reinforced.

Schedules of reinforcement can affect rates of acquisition and extinction. 

In continuous reinforcement (CRF), a response is reinforced every time it occurs.

In a fixed ratio (FR) schedule, reinforcement is delivered after a set number of responses.

In a variable ratio (VR) schedule, reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses.

In fixed interval (FI), reinforcement is delivered after a set amount of time.

In variable interval (VI), reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable amount of time.

Reinforcement schedules which are unpredictable result in responses which are more resistant to extinction.

Ex:

Refers to a person’s mental representation of some aspect of their environment, including its qualities and the relationships between it and other things. 

The term schema is used in Piaget’s developmental theory to describe the basic units in the brain used for organizing information.

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Self-efficacy is an important concept in Bandura’s social learning theory and is one’s beliefs in one’s ability to succeed at certain tasks or in certain situations. 

Self-efficacy influences how people approach situations–if they do not believe they can succeed, they are less likely to attemppt a task or to place themselves in a situation. The most effective way of instilling self-efficacy is successful real-life practice.

Also part of Bandura’s work on self-efficacy, outcome expectations are an individual’s belief that a particular course of action will ultimately produce certain outcomes. 

Outcome expectations may influence whether a person puts themselves in certain situations or not.

These two terms lead to the idea of efficacy expectations. In Bandura’s work on self-efficacy, these refer to an individual’s belief in whether or not they can successfully execute the behaviors required to produce a desired outcome. 

Efficacy expectations can influence whether or not a person will attempt these behaviors. They are influenced by a person’s past accomplishments, verbal persuasion, and emotional arousal.

Ex:

Part of the self-control model of depression, self-reinforcement is the process by which one is guided through the creation of a self-managed reward system that they may use in reinforcing progress toward goals identified in the evaluation phase of therapy.

Self-reinforcement in the self-control model posited by Rehm, states that those experiencing depression infrequently engage in self-reward and engage more frequently in self-punishment.

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In the context of operant conditioning, shaping is the process of dividing the learning task into a series of smaller steps.

It is used to teach a novel behavior not in an individual’s repertoire by reinforcing approximations of it. Instead of being reinforced for the desired behavior, an individual is reinforced for behaviors that are similar to the desired behavior. Once they learn the similar behaviors they will only be reinforced for behaviors that are more similar to the desired behavior. Eventually, the individual will only be reinforced for the desired behavior.

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In the context of developmental psychology, social skills training is a form of behavior therapy used to help increase positive interactions through learning socially appropriate behavior. Training can include role playing, behavioral rehearsal, and modeling.

Social skills are the ability to produce behavior that is positively reinforced by others and minimize behaviors that are punished by others.

It is assumed that when individuals increase their social skills they will increase the likelihood that others will respond positively to them. 

Lack of social skills is correlated with depression, delinquency in children, social anxiety, and some diagnoses such as schizophrenia. 

Ex:

Part of the self-control model of depression, self-reinforcement is the process by which one is guided through the creation of a self-managed reward system that they may use in reinforcing progress toward goals identified in the evaluation phase of therapy.

Self-reinforcement in the self-control model posited by Rehm, states that those experiencing depression infrequently engage in self-reward and engage more frequently in self-punishment.

Ex:

In the context of behavioral theory, spontaneous remission is an unexpected improvement or cure from a disease that usually progresses, which may be temporary or permanent.

This occurs when reversal of the disorder cannot be attributed to Western allopathic medical treatment.

Even if some placebo effects could be observed or caused by spontaneous remission, the two processes are not one and the same.

This is commonly observed with cancer patients, in Western medicine, and many times attributed to psychological or spiritual factors, such as the placebo effect or finding reasons to live and belief in a positive outcome.

Ex:

In the context of operant conditioning, successive approximations (shaping) are increasingly complex steps towards a desired outcome in shaping a complex behavior.

Behaviors are rewarded as they are repeated and begin to resemble the desired behavior. 

In a lab experiment, if the ultimate goal was to have the pigeon peck at a lever, the pigeon may first be rewarded for entering the half of the cage where the lever is, then be rewarded for going even closer to the lever. Eventually the pigeon will only be rewarded for the ultimate desired behavior–pecking at the lever.

Ex:

Developed from Joseph Wolpe’s experiments, this is a type of graded exposure which combines progressive muscle relaxation with an anxiety hierarchy. Wolpe hypothesized that anxiety would dissipate if a competing response such as relaxation were introduced. 

First, a client is given relaxation training of some sort. Second, the client develops an anxiety hierarchy. In the last step, the therapist asks the client to imagine the first scenario while practicing their relaxation training, continuing to the next scenario once the client doesn’t experience anxiety when imagining the first scenario.

Ex:

A behavior modification system based on basic learning principles and used for motivating clients to perform desirable behaviors and refrain from undesirable behaviors. Clients earn tokens for desirable behaviors and lose tokens for undesirable ones. Tokens can be exchanged for meaningful objects, privileges, or activities.

Token economies can be implemented on an individual or group level and can be used effectively in group homes, classrooms, and psychiatric institutes.

Advantages include that a token economy is highly convenient, teaches individuals that privileges and rewards must be earned, and focuses more attention on positive behaviors.

Disadvantages include the financial cost of rewards, the fact that individuals only engage in the behavior to get rewarded, and that an authority figure is required.

Ex: (working class & money)